Table 2.

The role of kaempferol in alleviating liver diseases.

Disease types	In vitro/in vivo model	Mechanism of action	Concentrations/doses	References
Liver injury	Bosentan-induced rat liver injury model and HEK-293 cells	Inhibition of OATP1B1 transporter and maintaining a level of AST and ALT	25 mg/kg and 1–150 μM	[48]
Liver injury	Male ddY mice	Decreased TBARS and TNF-α levels in CCl4-treated mice	4.9 mg/kg	[42]
Liver injury	Male swiss albino rats	Inhibition of lipid peroxidation caused by CCl4 reactive free radicals	25 mg/kg	[49]
Liver injury	Mice and HepG2 cells	Reduced AA + Fe-induced ROS production, reversed glutathione depletion, and cell death	250 and 500 mg/kg and 100, 200, and 400 μM	[50]
Alcoholic liver injury	ALI mice model	Increased antioxidant defense activity and decreased oxidative stress and lipid peroxidation	10 and 20 mg/kg	[44]
Liver fibrosis	L02, LX2, and rats	Decreased protein levels of cleaved caspase-3 and increased p-ERK1/2, PI3K, and Bcl-xL protein expression in TNF-α-stimulated L02 cells. The suppressed proliferation of LX2 cells and upregulation of Bax and cleaved caspase-8	20 μM	[51]
Liver fibrosis	HSCs/CCl4-induced mouse model	Downregulation of hyaluronic acid, ALT, AST, and Smad2/3. Inhibits collagen synthesis and activation of HSCs cells. Suppression of activin receptorlike kinase 5	2–10 μmol/L	[47]
Liver cancer	HepG2 cells	Increases the PIG3 level at mRNA and the protein level, increases ROS production and cytochrome c release, decreases mitochondrial membrane potential, upregulation of Bax/Bcl-2, activation of caspases-9and-3, and maintains the pro-oxidant activity	10, 20, 40, and 80 μM	[52]
Liver cancer	HepG2 cells	Apoptosis, reduced expression of miR-21, and upregulation of PTEN expression and the PI3K/AKT/mTOR signaling pathways inactivation	25, 50, 75, and 100 μM	[53]
Hepatotoxicity	Male C57BL/6 mice	Decreased level of ALT and AST. Induce hepatocellular damage, increases expression of antioxidant enzymes, and apoptosis. Reduces the NLRP3 expression and proinflammatory factors. Inhibition of the HMGB1/TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway	30 and 60 mg/kg	[54]
Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD)	HepG2 cells	Decreases hepatic lipid accumulation, inhibition of the NF-κB signal transduction pathway and promotes β oxidation in mitochondria, and upregulation of the expression of CPT1A	50 mg/kg	[55, 56]