Fig. 1.

Schematic showing how inducers or blockers of the sympathetic nervous system affect tumor progression, metastasis, and apoptosis. Propranolol causes cell apoptosis through caspases or the mitochondrial cell death pathway. Norepinephrine induces expression of the DUSP1, which inhibits cell apoptosis through regulation of the JNK pathway in the nucleus and through the mitochondrial cell death pathway. As shown, isoprenaline and chronic stress promote tumor progression, angiogenesis, and metastasis. The figure was created with BioRender.com.