Table 2.
Characteristics of studies not included in Meta-analyses
| 1st Author (year), country | Study design No at baseline (No analysed) |
Country (Income level) | Population and setting | Focus of educational intervention | Comparison group | Relevant Outcome(s) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Abiyu (2020) [58] |
Cluster RCT 612 mother-infant pairs (554) |
Ethiopia (LIC) | Mothers with infants < 6 months old residing in rural communities in Ethiopia | Feeding behaviour change intervention to improve infants’ feeding practices, health and growth | Usual care (routine health and nutrition services) | WHO dietary adequacy indicators (3), dietary intake (8) |
|
Acharya (2015) [59] |
Cluster RCT 12,368 (11,885) |
India (LMIC) | Community-dwelling pregnant women in Uttar Pradesh districts (high socioeconomic needs and low institutional delivery) | Pregnancy and Newborn Health – High intensity intervention | Low intensity intervention | Healthy delivery (5); breast feeding(4) |
|
Almabadi (2021) [60] |
RCT 579 (295) |
Australia (HIC) | Adults on a waiting list at an Oral Health Care Clinic in a low socio-economic community | Promoting improved oral health care via education about oral hygiene procedures, smoking and alcohol cessation, healthy diet | Routine oral health care | Smoking, alcohol, diet, BMI, blood makers (6), plaque index |
|
Alegria (2014) [61] |
RCT 724 (647) |
USA (HIC) | Low-income Latino and/or other minority patients of community mental health clinics; English and Spanish speaking | Teaching activation, self-management, engagement & retention in mental healthcare | Minimal intervention (received brochure) | Patient activation, self-management, service use, retention |
|
Alias (2021) [62] |
Quasi-experimental 390 (358) |
Spain (HIC) | Community dwelling older adults (≥ 60 years) living in urban disadvantaged areas who perceived their health as fair or poor | Aimed at promoting social support and participation, self-management and health literacy | Delayed intervention | Social participation; use of anxiolytics/antidepressants; use of health resources |
|
Alvarenga (2020) [63] |
RCT 56 (44) |
Brazil (UMIC) | Mother-infant dyads recruited from 2 health centres in 2 low-income communities | Infant development | Control intervention (monthly mailouts showing main developmental milestones) | Mother behaviours related to maternal sensitivity (6) |
|
Andrews (2016) [64] |
RCT 409 (373) |
USA (HIC) | Female smokers residing in government subsidized neighbourhoods in South Carolina | Smoking cessation intervention | Delayed intervention group | Smoking cessation (2) |
|
Annan (2017) [65] |
RCT 479 (479) |
Thailand (LMIC) | Burmese migrant parents or primary caregivers and their children residing in rural, peri-urban, or urban communities in Thailand | Parenting and family skills training program | Waiting list control condition | Child behaviour (3) |
|
Avila (1994) [37] |
RCT 44 (39) |
USA (HIC) | Obese, low-income Latina from a community medical clinic | Weight reduction program including exercise, nutrition education, behavioural modification strategies, and a buddy system | Control intervention—weekly cancer screening education sessions | Exercise frequency, BMI, cholesterol, blood glucose, BP, VO2 max |
| Bagner (2016) [66] |
RCT 60 families (46) |
USA (HIC) | Racial minority mothers and their 12–15-month-old infants living below the poverty line | Parenting intervention involving an Infant Behaviour Program | Standard paediatric care | Parent child interaction (2) |
| Baranowski (1990) [67] |
RCT 94 families (94) |
USA (HIC) | Black American families with children in 5th, 6th and 7th grade in community-based public or private school systems | Centre-based program to improve diet and increase aerobic activity | No intervention control group (no contact during the program) | Exercise (2), resting pulse rate, BP |
|
Barry (2022) [68] |
RCT 574 (364) |
USA (HIC) | English-speaking mother-infant dyads living in poverty in one of two major US cities | Positive parenting and healthy child development | Usual care | Child behaviour (4), continuous performance task |
|
Befort (2016) [69] |
RCT 172 (168) |
USA (HIC) | Postmenopausal female breast cancer survivors residing in rural areas through rural community cancer clinics | Diet and physical activity intervention (Phase 2—weight maintenance intervention) | Minimal intervention – mailout and phone calls covering the same educational content | Weight (4) |
|
Berman (1995) [70] |
Quasi-experimental 446 (118) |
USA (HIC) | Adult smokers who were parents of students or adult students from low to middle income, multi-ethnic, inner-city public-schools | Smoking cessation program | Control group—received health education material without smoking cessation information | Smoking cessation (4) |
|
Bray (2013) [71] |
Quasi-experimental 727 (727) |
USA (HIC) | Rural, low income, diabetic African Americans in rural, fee for service primary care practices | Diabetes self-management program involving education, self-management coaching and medication adjustment | Usual care—standard assessment and treatment, educational handouts offered | Haemoglobin, BP, lipid levels |
|
Brooks (2018) [72] |
Cluster RCT 331 (250) |
USA (HIC) | Smokers interested in quitting smoking from Boston public housing developments | Smoking cessation intervention | Standard care—smoking cessation materials and one visit from a Tobacco Treatment Advocate | Service use; smoking cessation (2) |
|
Brown (2013) [73] |
RCT 252 (109) |
USA (HIC) | Impoverished Mexican Americans with type 2 diabetes in the community | Culturally tailored diabetes self-management education intervention | Waiting list control | Leptin, A1C, BMI |
|
Cahill (2018) [74] |
RCT 267 (240) |
USA (HIC) | Socioeconomically disadvantaged pregnant African American women, overweight/obese before pregnancy | Homebased lifestyle weight management intervention to reduce gestational weight gain | Control group – parenting skills program | Weight (2), body composition, plasma glucose (2), insulin (2), lipids, |
|
Calderon-Mora (2020) [44] |
Cluster RCT 300 (257) |
USA (HIC) | Underserved Hispanic women—uninsured or underinsured/low income/low educational attainment | Group cervical cancer screening education program | Individual counselling with identical education content | Cervical cancer screening (1) |
|
Childs (1997) [75] |
RCT 1000 (455) |
England (HIC) | Children recorded on a child health register from households in inner city areas of high socioeconomic deprivation | Dietary health education program. Families received specific health education information at key child ages | Standard care | Haemoglobin; diet (2); breast feeding (3); intro-duction of pasteurised milk |
|
Cibulka (2011) [76] |
RCT 170 (146) |
USA (HIC) | Low-income pregnant women in an inner-city hospital based prenatal clinic | Oral care education program and provision of dental supplies | Control group – education without dental supplies | Brushing & flossing, sugary drink intake, dental check up |
|
Curry (2003) [77] |
RCT 303 (ITT: 303) |
USA (HIC) | Ethnically diverse, low-income female smokers whose children received care in a paediatric clinic | Smoking cessation intervention | Usual care with no education related to smoking cessation | Smoking cessation (4) |
|
Damush (2003) [78] |
RCT 211 (139) |
USA (HIC) | Low income, inner city primary care patients with acute low back pain in an inner-city neighbourhood health centre | Acute low back pain self-management program | Usual care—referrals and analgesics as indicated, and back exercise sheets | Physical activity (4) |
|
Dawson-McClure (2014) [79] |
RCT 1050 (1050) |
USA (HIC) | Low-income families with a non-Latino Black child in a pre-k program in disadvantaged urban neighbourhoods in New York City | ParentCorps Intervention aimed to increase parent involvement in early learning and behaviour management | ParentCorps intervention not provided in control schools | Parenting practices (4) |
|
Dela Cruz (2012) [80] |
RCT 5,807 (5,807) |
USA (HIC) | Low-income families with young children enrolled in Medicaid or Basic Health Plus in Yakima County, Washington State | Dental health care education | No postcard mailings | Service use |
|
Doorenbos (2011) [43] |
RCT 5605 (5363) |
USA (HIC) | Urban, low-income American Indians and Alaska native patients through mail to patients of an urban American Indian clinic | Mail-out intervention to increase cancer screening | Mailed calendar without cancer screening messages | Smoking cessation, cancer screening (3) |
|
El-Mohandes (2003) [81] |
RCT 286 (167) |
USA (HIC) | Lo- income minority mothers from a community-based hospital | Parenting skills education program | Standard social services care | Service use (2) |
|
El-Mohandes (2010) [82] |
RCT 691 (691) |
USA (HIC) | Pregnant African American women from 6 clinics in Washington, DC | Intervention aimed at reducing environmental tobacco smoke exposure | Routine prenatal care | Environmental tobacco smoke exposure (2) |
|
Emmons (2001) [83] |
RCT 291 (279) |
USA (HIC) | Low-income smokers or recent quitters through community-based health centres | Intervention for smoking parents of young children aimed at reducing household passive smoke exposure | Self-help smoking cessation resources | Household nicotine levels |
|
Falbe (2015) [84] |
RCT 55 parent–child dyads (41) |
USA (HIC) | Overweight or obese Latino parent and child dyads using federally funded care | Obesity intervention (Active and Healthy Families Intervention) | Usual care wait list control condition | BMI (2), BP, lipids, blood glucose, insulin (2), haemoglobin A1C |
|
Fernandez-Jimenez (2020) [85] |
Cluster RCT 635 parent–child dyads (446) |
USA (HIC) | Low-income and minority parents or caregivers and their children from 15 Head Start preschools in Harlem, New York | Health promotion intervention (2 arms) to improve cardiovascular risk factor profiles (Peer-to-Peer Program) | Control group received education unrelated to cardiovascular health | Composite health score, FBS |
|
Fiks (2017) [86] |
RCT 87 (71) |
USA (HIC) | Low-income, Medicaid insured new mothers of infants at high risk of obesity | Intervention to address parenting, maternal wellbeing, feeding and infant sleep | No education—text message appointment reminders only | Infant feeding, sleep, activity; maternal well being |
|
Fitzgibbon (1996) [87] |
RCT 38 families (36) |
USA (HIC) | Low-income inner city Hispanic American families living in the community in Chicago | Dietary intervention to reduce cancer risk | Control received health related pamphlets | Parent support, diet intake (2), BP |
|
Fitzgibbon (2004) [41] |
RCT 256 (195) |
USA (HIC) | Latino women from the Erie Family Health Centre | Combined dietary and breast health intervention | Control group received health information unrelated to breast health | Breast self-examination (2) |
|
Fox (1999) [88] |
RCT 646 (566) |
USA (HIC) | Residents in 9 rural counties with a minimum of 15% of their population below the poverty line and 10% minority population | ‘In-home’ mental health screening and educational intervention | Control group—received list of local resources for health/mental health care | Rates of help seeking behaviour |
|
Gielen (1997) [89] |
RCT 467 (391) |
USA (HIC) | Low income, minority pregnant women smokers from an urban prenatal clinic | Smoking cessation and relapse prevention program (Smoke-Free Moms Project) | Usual care – routine clinic and inpatient smoking cessation education | Smoking cessation |
|
Hayashi (2010) [40] |
RCT 1093 (869) |
USA (HIC) | Low-income, uninsured/underinsured Hispanic women at risk for cardiovascular disease | Lifestyle intervention to improve health behaviours and reduce cardiovascular disease risk factors | Usual in-clinic care only with no lifestyle intervention | Eating habits (3); physical activity (3); BP; BMI; CHD risk; cholesterol; smoking |
|
Hesselink (2012) [90] |
Quasi-experimental 239 (183) |
Nether-lands (HIC) | 1st and 2nd generation Turkish women living in the Netherlands through parent–child centres providing integrated maternity and infant care | Antenatal education program | Usual care | Smoking during pregnancy, parenting behaviours (2) |
|
Hillemeier (2008) [39] |
RCT 692 (362) |
USA (HIC) | Low socioeconomic status women, pregnant or able to become pregnant in low income urban, rural and semirural locations | Health education intervention to improve health behaviours and health status of pre-conceptional and inter-conceptional women | Control group | Physical activity, reading food labels, multivitamin use, BMI, weight, BP, blood glucose, cholesterol |
|
Hoodbhoy (2021) |
Cluster RCT 32,595 |
Pakistan (LMIC) | Pregnant women and their families residing in a rural low-resource setting | Maternal and perinatal health program aimed at reducing all-cause maternal and perinatal morbidity and mortality | Routine antenatal | Birth preparedness (composite score & individual items (6)) |
|
Hooper (2017) [91] |
RCT 342 (282) |
USA (HIC) | Low-income African American smokers through a university | Smoking cessation intervention | Standard CBT intervention—not culturally based | Smoking cessation |
|
Hunt (1976) [92] |
RCT 344 (200) |
USA (HIC) | Low-income pregnant women of Mexican descent from Los Angeles County prenatal clinics | Nutrition education intervention | Control group given vitamin and mineral capsules but no education | Dietary nutrients from blood samples (12) |
|
Jacobson (1999) [93] |
RCT 433 (318) |
USA (HIC) | Inner city minority patients 65 + years, presenting for routine primary care at an inner-city public hospital | One-page, low literacy patient education tool encouraging patients to ask their doctor about pneumococcal vaccination | Control group—one-page handout about nutrition | Vaccination rates, vaccination discussions with clinician |
|
Janicke (2008) [94] |
RCT 93 (71) |
USA (HIC) | Families with overweight children in underserved rural settings through Cooperative Extension Service offices | Diet and exercise intervention (two arms) | Waiting list control | Child’s BMI |
|
Jensen (2021) [95] |
Cluster RCT 149814981498149814981498149814981498149814981498(1354) |
Rwanda (LIC) | Families belonging to the most extreme level of poverty with one or more children aged 6–36 months | Early childhood development and non-violence | Usual care including social protection public works program and government support services | Violence and safety, harsh discipline |
|
Kalichman (2000) [42] |
RCT 105 (53) |
USA (HIC) | Inner city, low-income African American women who were patients of a community-based health clinic | Breast self-examination skills building workshop | Control group—sexually transmitted diseases prevention workshop | Breast self-examination skills and rate |
|
Kasari (2014) [96] |
RCT 147 (95) |
USA (HIC) | Families low income or with mothers with low educational attainment, or a primary carer who is unemployed, in low resource communities | Caregiver-mediated intervention for pre-schoolers with Autism | Two active interventions compared: individual and group | Parent–child interaction (4) |
|
Kelly (1994) [97] |
RCT 197 (93) |
USA (HIC) | Low-income, minority women in neighbour-hoods with high rates of sexually transmitted diseases, drug abuse & teenage pregnancy | HIV and AIDS risk reduction group education | Control group received sessions on health topics unrelated to AIDS | Safe sex practices (9) |
|
Kim (2021) [98] |
RCT 63 (56) |
South Korea (HIC) | Low-income women (40–60 years) residing in J Provence, South Korea | Healthy lifestyle intervention addressing nutrition, exercise, stress, psychological distress and dementia prevention | Minimal intervention (booklet with diet and exercise advice) | Health promoting behaviour, BMI, % body fat, waist-hip ratio |
|
King (2013) [38] |
RCT 40 (39) |
USA (HIC) | Low-income, inactive older adults through community centres serving primarily Latino population in San Jose, California | Physical activity intervention | Control group—received information about non-physical activity topics | Physical activity |
|
Kreuter (2010) [45] |
RCT 489 (429) |
USA (HIC) | Low-income African American women through low-income community neighbourhoods | Breast cancer screening intervention | Content equivalent video using a more explanatory and didactic approach | Mammogram |
|
Krieger (2005) [99] |
RCT 274 (214) |
USA (HIC) | Low-income, ethnically diverse urban households in their homes | High intensity intervention to decrease exposure to indoor asthma triggers | Low intensity intervention group | Asthma trigger reduction behaviour |
|
Kulathinal (2019) [100] |
Quasi-experimental 405 (380) |
India (LMIC) | Married men and women from primary health centres in rural Western India | Sexual and reproductive health intervention | Control areas received no mobile helpline | Contraceptive use (2) |
|
Lutenbacher (2018) [101] |
RCT 188 (178) |
USA (HIC) | Low-income pregnant Hispanic women in isolated community in a large metropolitan area | Home visiting program using peer mentors to improve maternal and child health outcomes | Minimal education intervention group received printed educational materials only | Breast feeding (3), prenatal care visits, reading stories, infant sleeping (2) |
| Maldonado (2020) [102] |
Quasi-experimental 379 (326) |
Kenya (LMIC) | Pregnant women attending their first antenatal care visits at a public health facility in a rural sub-county in Kenya | Education addressed antenatal care, family planning, intimate partner violence and microfinance literacy | Standard care (no structured education) | Facility-based delivery, healthy parenting practices (4), financial planning |
|
Manandhar (2004) [103] |
Cluster RCT 24 clusters (24) |
Nepal (LMIC) | Poor married women of reproductive age in a community based rural district | Childbirth and care behaviours intervention | Health service strengthening activities only | Antenatal care (10) |
|
Martin (2011) [104] |
RCT 434 (338) |
USA (HIC) | Low income, rural adults receiving medication at no charge from a public health department or a federally funded rural health centre | Adherence to hypertensive medications intervention | Control group – received cancer information | Medication adherence |
|
McClure (2020) [105] |
RCT 718 (526) |
USA (HIC) | Socioeconomically disadvantaged English- speaking adults who smoked > 5 cigarettes/day and were ready to quit smoking | A novel oral health and smoking cessation program | Standard smoking cessation program | Smoking cessation, oral health behaviours (4) |
|
McConnell (2016) [106] |
RCT 104 (59) |
Kenya (LMIC) | New mothers from a peri-urban community | Postnatal care intervention (2 arms) | Standard care group | Vaccination, family planning, breast feeding (2), index of health practices |
|
McGilloway (2014) [107] |
RCT 149 (137) |
Ireland (HIC) | Families in an urban disadvantaged area defined by their demographic profile, social class composition, and labour market situation | Parenting intervention aimed at fostering positive parent child relationships | Waiting list control | Child conduct (2), service use (2), social competence |
|
Miller (2013) [108] |
RCT 210 (82) |
USA (HIC) | Inner city, low income, minority women who had an abnormal pap smear | Colposcopy appointment adherence intervention (2 arms) | Enhanced standard care—included appointment reminders | Colposcopy (2) |
|
Murthy (2019) [109] |
Quasi-experimental 2016 (1417) |
India (LMIC) | Low-income pregnant women in urban slums (selected based on being in slums that are high proportion low income) | Healthy infant intervention | Control group | Child immunization, healthy infant nutrition (7) |
|
Pandey (2007) [110] |
Cluster RCT 1045 households (1025) |
India (LMIC) | Low socioeconomic status, resource poor, rural village clusters in Uttar Pradesh through the community | Pre-natal and infant health care utilisation | Control village clusters receiving no intervention | Prenatal care (3), tetanus injection, infant received vaccination |
|
Phillips (2014) [111] |
RCT 53 (53) |
Australia (HIC) | Australian Aboriginal children with tympanic membrane perforation through remote communities | Child ear health intervention | Usual care – received information sheet, treat-ment guidelines, advice to attend weekly clinic | Service use |
|
Pitchik (2021) [112] |
Cluster RCT 621 (568) |
Bangla-desh (LMIC) | Pregnant women or primary caregivers of a child < 15 months residing in rural villages | Child development intervention including caregiver behaviours, nutrition, caregiver mental health and lead exposure prevention | No intervention | Stimulation in the home |
|
Polomoff (2022) [113] |
RCT 188 (180) |
USA (HIC) | Cambodian Americans aged 35–75 years at high risk of developing diabetes and meeting the criteria for likely depression | A bilingual, trauma-informed, cardio-metabolic education intervention to decrease diabetes risk | Control intervention (needs assessment and support) | Medication forgetting |
|
Reijneveld (2003) [114] |
RCT 126 (92) |
Nether-lands (HIC) | Turkish immigrants aged 40 + years old recruited via welfare services | Health education and physical exercise program | Control group received the ‘Ageing in the Netherlands’ program | Physical activity |
|
Reisine (2012) [115] |
RCT 120 (93) |
USA (HIC) | Low-income pregnant women attending a community health centre | Dental caries prevention and nutrition education | Control group – received dental caries prevention education only | Mutans levels, Service use, teeth brushing |
|
Ridgeway (2022) [116] |
RCT 1377 (943) |
USA (HIC) | Women 40–74 years presenting for a screening mammogram at a health clinic serving a primarily Latina/Latino population | Education to explain the meaning and implications of mammographic breast density | Usual care (mailed mammogram results only) | Provider conversations relating to breast density |
|
Robinson (2002) [117] |
RCT 218 (122) |
USA (HIC) | Low-income African American women | HIV and sexually transmitted diseases prevention intervention combined with comprehensive sexuality education | Control group—received an HIV pamphlet and a gift card to a local beauty school | Sexual communication (3) |
|
Ryser (2004) [118] |
RCT 54 (54) |
USA (HIC) | Low-income pregnant women | Breast feeding education program | Control group—no exposure to Best Start program | Breast feeding |
|
Saleh (2018) [119] |
RCT Data from 2359 patient records |
Lebanon (UMIC) | Individuals with noncommunicable diseases in rural areas and refugee camps | Hypertension and diabetes self-management education | Control group—no intervention | BP (2), diabetes markers (3) |
|
SantaMaria (2021) [120] |
RCT 519 (397) |
USA (HIC) | Parents of caregivers of youth 11–14 years of age living in medically underserved communities | Sexual health intervention including adolescent vaccinations and HPV | Control intervention – received nutrition and exercise information | Vaccination initiation and completion |
|
Segal-Isaacson (2006) [121] |
RCT 466 (230) |
USA (HIC) | Women with HIV/AIDS | High intensity coping skills, stress management and nutrition education intervention | Low intensity intervention—education with no individualization | CD4 and CD8 cell count, viral load, lipids |
|
Seguin-Fowler (2020) [122] |
Cluster RCT 182 (182) |
USA (HIC) | Women aged ≥ 40 years who were overweight or obese and sedentary; lived rurally in medically underserved towns | Healthy lifestyle intervention to reduce risk for cardiovascular disease | Delayed intervention | smoking cessation, diet, physical activity, weight, blood pressure, cholesterol, blood glucose |
|
Simmons (2022) [123] |
RCT 1467 (1417) |
USA (HIC) | Hispanic and Latino smoking adults | Smoking cessation program | Usual care (mailed Spanish language quit smoking booklet) | Smoking cessation |
|
Smith (2021) [124] |
RCT 240 (240) |
USA (HIC) | Racially and ethnically diverse low-income families with an overweight child attending paediatric primary care | Parenting skill development, connection with community-based services, telephone/face-to-face coaching | Usual care (information about services) | Child physical activity, diet, BMI, mealtime/media/sleep routines |
|
Steptoe (2003) [125] |
RCT 271 (218) |
USA (HIC) | Low-income, minority patients in a deprived ethnically diverse inner-city area | Individualised behavioural dietary counselling intervention targeted increasing intake of fruit and vegetables | Low intensity intervention—brief nutrition counselling | Dietary intake (2), nutrition blood levels (5), body weight, BMI, BP, cholesterol |
|
Wiggins (2005) [126] |
RCT 731 (601) |
England (HIC) | Low-income, inner city, culturally diverse minority women with infants in two disadvantaged inner-city boroughs of London | New mothers support interventions (2 arms) | Low intensity intervention—routine health visiting services | Smoking, infant feeding |
|
Xu (2019) [127] |
RCT 278 (278) |
Indonesia (LMIC) | Resource poor villagers diagnosed with schizophrenia in 9 rural townships | Schizophrenia support intervention (Lay health supporters, E-platform, Aware and iNtegration (LEAN)) | Usual care – included a public health program for people with psychosis | Medication adherence |