Table 13. Opportunities for Basic Metallurgical Research Related to Sustainable Lithium Production, with Potentially High Leverage on Improved Sustainability.

Process- and mechanism-related research on sustainable lithium production

Primary synthesis: Lithium winning methods with less water consumption compared to brine evaporation methods; brine evaporation production with less land use; more efficient precipitation of lithium carbonate; exploration of alternative lithium sources such as brine lakes and geothermal wells; development of more efficient and less wasteful extraction methods; better waste management and water usage practices in lithium mining operations

Secondary synthesis: Advanced sorting and separation techniques to separate different battery chemistries and metals; new efficient and less harmful hydrometallurgical processes for lithium extraction; pyrolysis methods for lithium extraction; improved recycling efficiency; recycling of lithium ion from mixed battery scrap to reduce reliance on mining; replacement of lithium by sodium as charge carrier in batteries; pyrometallurgical processes for recovering metals from batteries