Confounding and confounders
R McNamee
Web-only References
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On causes:
Neyman J. Sur les applications de la thar des probabilities aux experiences Agaricales: essay des principles. Transl. D Dabrowska, T Speed in Statistical Sciences 1990;5:463-472.
Lewis D. Causation. J Philos 1973; 70:556-67.
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Rubin DB. Estimating causal effects of treatments in randomized and non-randomized studies. J Educ Psych 1974;66:688-701.
Rothman KJ. Causes. Am J Epidemiology 1976;104:587-92.
Sobel MS. Causal inference in the social sciences. J Am Statist Assoc 2000; 95:647-651.
On adjusting for pregnancy history:
Nurminen T. On adjusting for the outcome of previous pregnancies in epidemiologic reproductive studies. Epidemiology 1994;6:84-86.
Weinberg C. Should we adjust for pregnancy history when the exposure effect is transient? (Letter) Epidemiology 1995;6:335-336.
Nurminen T Should we adjust for pregnancy history when the exposure effect is transient? (Reply) Epidemiology 1995;6:336-337.
On selection effects in occupational cohorts:
Fox AJ, Collier PF. Low mortality rates in industrial cohort studies due to selection for work and survival in the industry. Br J Prev Soc Med 1976;30:225-230.
McMicheal AJ. Standardised mortality ratios and the “healthy worker effect”: scratching beneath the surface. J Occup Med 1976;18:165-168.
Wen CP, Tsai SP, Gibson RL. Anatomy of the healthy worker effect: a critical review. J Occup Med 1983;25:283-289.
Sterling TD, Weinkam JJ. Extent, persistence and constancy of the healthy worker or healthy person effect by all and selected causes of death. J Occup Med 1986;28:348-353.
Monson RR. Observations on the healthy worker effect. J Occup Med 1986;28:425-433.
On collapsibility definition of a confounder:
Whittemore AS. Collapsing multidimensional tables. J R Stat Soc B 1978;40:328-340.
Boivin JF, Wacholder S. Conditions for confounding of the risk ratio and of the odds ratio. Am J Epidemiology 1985;121:152-158.
Grayson DA.. Confounding confounding. Am J Epidemiology 1987;126:546-63.
Greenland S, Morgenstern H. Poole C, Robins JM. Re: “confounding confounding”. (Letter). Am J Epidemiology 1989;129:1086-9.
Grayson DA.. Re: “confounding confounding”. (Reply). Am J Epidemiology 1989;129:1089-1091.
On control of the healthy (shift)worker hire effect in case-control studies:
McNamee R, Binks K, Jones S, Slovak A, Cherry NM. Shiftwork and mortality from ischaemic heart disease. Occupational and Environmental Medicine 1996;53:367-373.
On control of the healthy worker survivor effect and similar problems:
Hertz-Picciotto, Michael Arrighi H, Suh-Woan H. Does arsenic exposure increase the risk of circulatory disease? Am J Epidemiology 2000;151:174-181.
Steenland K, Deddens J, Salvan A, Staynew L. Negative bias in exposure-response trends in occupational studies: modelling the healthy worker survivor effect. Am J Epidemiology 1996;143:202-210.
Robins JM, Blevins D, Ritter G, Wulfson M. G-estimation of the effect of prophylaxis therapy for pneumocystis carinii pneumonia on the survival of AIDS patients. Epidemiology 1992;3:319-336.
Robins J. A new approach to causal inference in mortality studies with a sustained exposure period: application to control of the healthy worker effect. Math Modelling 1986;7:1393-1512.
Sterne J, Tilling K. G-estimation of causal effects, allowing for time-varying confounding. The Stata Journal 2002;2:164-182