Supplementary references
Transcription factor expression modulated by mechanical injury to the artery wall
Aoyagi, M., et al. 1997. Expression of p53 protein and p53 gene transcripts in rabbit carotid arteries after balloon denudation. Histochem. Cell Biol. 107:365–370.
Edelman, E.R., Simons, M., Sirios, M.G., and Rosenberg, R.D. 1995. c-myc in vasculoproliferative disease. Circ. Res. 76:176–182.
Hu, Y., Cheng, L., Hochleitner, B.-W., and Xu, Q. 1997. Activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (ERK/JNK) and AP-1 transcription factor in rat carotid arteries after balloon injury. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 17:2808–2816.
Khachigian, L.M., Lindner, V., Williams, A.J., and Collins, T. 1996. Egr-1-induced endothelial gene expression: a common theme in vascular injury. Science. 271:1427–1431.
Khachigian, L.M., et al. 1999. GC factor 2 represses platelet-derived growth factor A-chain transcription and is itself induced by arterial injury. Circ. Res. 84:1258–1267.
Kim, S., et al. 1995. Angiotensin II type 1 receptor blockade inhibits the expression of immediate-early genes and fibronectin in rat injured artery. Circulation. 92:88–95.
Lindner, V., and Collins, T. 1996. Expression of NF-kappaB and IkappaB-alpha by aortic endothelium in an arterial injury model. Am. J. Pathol. 148:427–438.
Miano, J.M., Tota, R.R., Vlasic, N., Danishefsky, K.J., and Stemerman, M.B. 1990. Early proto-oncogene expression in rat aortic smooth muscle cells following endothelial removal. Am. J. Pathol. 137:761–765.
Miano, J.M., Vlasic, N., Tota, R.R., and Stemerman, M.B. 1993. Smooth muscle cell immediate-early gene and growth factor activation follows vascular injury: a putative mechanism for autocrine growth. Arterioscler. Thromb. 13:211–219.
Simons, M., Edelman, E.R., DeKeyser, J.-L., Langer, R., and Rosenberg, R. 1992. Antisense c-myb oligonucleotides inhibit intimal arterial smooth muscle cell accumulation in vivo. Nature. 359:67–70.
Tanaka, K., Oda, N., Iwasaka, C., Abe, M., and Sato, Y. 1998. Induction of Ets-1 in endothelial cells during reendothelialization after denuding injury. J. Cell. Physiol. 176:235–244.
Weir, L., Chen, D., Pastore, C., Isner, J.M., and Walsh, K. 1995. Expression of gax, a growth arrest homeobox gene, is rapidly down-regulated in the rat carotid artery during the proliferative response to balloon injury. J. Biol. Chem. 270:5457–5461.
Various Egr-1–dependent genes
Biesiada, E., Razandi, M., and Levin, E.R. 1996. Egr-1 activates basic fibroblast growth factor transcription. J. Biol. Chem. 271:18576––18581.
Cui, M.-Z., et al. 1996. Transcriptional regulation of the tissue factor gene in human epithelial cells is mediated by Sp1 and EGR-1. J. Biol. Chem. 271:2731–2739.
Haas, T.L., Stitelman, D., Davis, S.J., Apte, S.S., and Madri, J.A. 1999. Egr-1 mediates extracellular matrix-driven transcription of membrane type 1 matrix metalloproteinase. J. Biol. Chem. 274:22679–22685.
Hu, R.-M., and Levin, E.R. 1994. Astrocyte growth factor is regulated by neuropeptides through Tis 8 and basic fibroblast growth factor. J. Clin. Invest. 93:1820–1827.
Khachigian, L.M., Williams, A.J., and Collins, T. 1995. Interplay of Sp1 and Egr-1 in the proximal PDGF-A promoter in cultured vascular endothelial cells. J. Biol. Chem. 270:2767–-27686
Khachigian, L.M., Lindner, V., Williams, A.J., and Collins, T. 1996. Egr-1-induced endothelial gene expression: a common theme in vascular injury. Science. 271:1427–1431.
Kilbourne, E.J., Widom, R., Harnish, D.C., Malik, S., and Karathanasis, S.K. 1995. Involvement of early growth response factor Egr-1 in apolipoprotein AI gene transcription. J. Biol. Chem. 270:7004–7010.
Kramer, B., Meichle, A., Hensel, G., Charnay, P., and Kronke, M. 1994. Characterization of an Krox-24/Egr-1-responsive element in the human tumor necrosis factor promoter. Biochem. Biophys. Acta. 1219:413–421.
Liu, C., Adamson, E., and Mercola, D. 1996. Transcription factor EGR-1 suppresses the growth and transformation of human HT-1080 fibrosarcoma cells by induction of transforming growth factor beta 1. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 93:11831–11836.
Liu, C., et al. 1999. The transcription factor EGR-1 suppresses transformation of human fibrosarcoma HT1080 cells by coordinated induction of transforming growth factor-beta1, fibronectin, and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1. J. Biol. Chem. 274:4400–4411.
Maltzman, J.S., Carman, J.A., and Monroe, J.G. 1996. Transcriptional regulation of the Icam-1 gene in antigen receptor- and phorbol ester-stimulated B lymphocytes: role for transcription factor EGR1. J. Exp. Med. 183:1747–1759.
Maltzman, J.S., Carman, J.A., and Monroe, J.G. 1996. Role of Egr1 in regulation of stimulus-dependent CD44 transcription in B lymphocytes. Mol. Cell. Biol. 16:2283–2294.
Vidal, F., Aragones, J., Alfranca, A., and de Landazuri, M.O. 2000. Up-regulation of vascular endothelial growth factor receptor Flt-1 after endothelial denudation: role of transcription factor Egr-1. Blood. 95:3387–3395.
Various activators of Egr-1
Day, F.L., Rafty, L.A., Chesterman, C.N., and Khachigian, L.M. 1999. Angiotensin II (ATII)-inducible platelet-derived growth factor A-chain gene expression is p42/44 extracellular signal-regulated kinase-1/2 and Egr-1 dependent and modulated via the ATII type 1 but not type 2 receptor. Induction by ATII antagonized by nitric oxide. J. Biol. Chem. 274:23726–23733.
Delbridge, G.J., and Khachigian, L.M. 1997. FGF-1-induced PDGF A-chain gene expression in vascular endothelial cells involves transcriptional activation by Egr-1. Circ. Res. 81:282–288.
Houston, P., et al. 1999. Fluid shear stress induction of the tissue factor promoter in vitro and in vivo is mediated by Egr-1. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 19:281–289.
Huang, R.P., Wu, J.X., Fan, Y., and Adamson, E.D. 1996. UV activates growth factor receptors via reactive oxygen intermediates. J. Cell Biol. 133:211–220.
Khachigian, L.M., et al. 1997. Egr-1 is activated in endothelial cells exposed to fluid shear stress and interacts with a novel shear-stress response element in the PDGF A-chain promoter. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 17:2280–2286.
Mignacca, R.C., Lee, H.J.J., Kwon, E.M., and Sakamoto, K.M. 1996. Mechanism of transcriptional activation of the immediate early gene Egr-1 in response to PIXY321. Blood. 88:848–854.
Morawietz, H., et al. 1999. Rapid induction and translocation of Egr-1 in response to mechanical strain in vascular smooth muscle cells. Circ. Res. 84:678–687.
Nagel, T., Resnick, N., Dewey, C.F., Jr., and Gimbrone, M.A., Jr. 1999. Vascular endothelial cells respond to spatial gradients in fluid shear stress by enhanced activation of transcription factors. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 19:1825–1834.
Santiago, F.S., Lowe, H.C., Day, F.L., Chesterman, C.N., and Khachigian, L.M. 1999. Egr-1 induction by injury is triggered by release and paracrine activation by fibroblast growth factor-2. Am. J. Pathol. 154:937–944.
Wung, B.S., Cheng, J.J., Chao, Y.J., Hsieh, H.J., and Wang, D.L. 1999. Modulation of Ras/Raf/extracellular signal-regulated kinase pathway by reactive oxygen species is involved in cyclic strain-induced early growth response-1 gene expression in endothelial cells. Circ. Res. 84:804–812.
Yan, S.-F., et al. 1998. Tissue factor transcription driven by Egr-1 is a critical mechanism of murine pulmonary fibrin deposition in hypoxia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 95:8298–8303.
Glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptor antagonists for the prevention of restenosis
Casterella, P.J., and Teirstein, P.S. 1999. Prevention of coronary restenosis. Cardiol. Rev. 7:219–231.
Lincoff, A.M., Califf, R.M., and Topol, E.J. 2000. Platelet glycoprotein IIb/IIIa receptor blockade in coronary artery disease. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 35:1103–1115.
Topol, E.J., et al. 1994. Randomised trial of coronary intervention with antibody against platelet IIb/IIIa integrin for reduction of clinical restenosis: results at six months. Lancet. 343:881–886.
Endoluminal delivery via catheters and coated/impregnated stents
Keelan, P.C., Miyauchi, K., Caplice, N.M., Ashai, K.H., and Schwartz, R.S. 1998. Modification of molecular events in coronary restenosis using coated stents: the Mayo Clinic approach. Semin. Interv. Cardiol. 3:211–215.
Raman, V.K., and Edelman, E.R. 1998. Coated stents: local pharmacology. Semin. Interv. Cardiol. 3:133–137.
Examples of antisense oligonucleotides used to inhibit neointima formation
Abe, J., et al. 1994. Suppression of neointimal smooth muscle cell accumulation in vivo by antisense cdc2 and cdk-2 oligonucleotides in rat carotid artery. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 198:16–24.
Autieri, M.V., Yue, T.-L., Ferstein, G.Z., and Ohlstein, E. 1995. Antisense oligonucleotides to the p65 subunit of NF-kB inhibit human vascular smooth muscle cell adherence and proliferation and prevent neointima formation in rat carotid arteries. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 213:827–836.
Bennett, M.R., et al. 1994. Inhibition of vascular mooth muscle cell proliferation in vitro and in vivo by c-myc antisense oligodeoxynucleotides. J. Clin. Invest. 93:820–828.
Fulton, G.J., et al. 1997. Antisense oligonucleotide to proto-oncogene c-myb inhibits the formation of intimal hyperplasia in experimental vein grafts. J. Vasc. Surg. 25:453–463.
Gunn, J., et al. 1997. The effect of oligonucleotides to c-myb on vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and neointima formation after porcine coronary angioplasty. Circ. Res. 80:520–531.
Morishita, R., et al. 1993. Single intraluminal delivery of antisense cdc2 kinase and proliferating-cell nuclear antigen oligonucleotides results in chronic inhibition of neointimal hyperplasia. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA. 90:8474–8478.
Morishita, R., et al. 1994. Intimal hyperplasia after vascular injury is inhibited by antisense cdk2 oligonucleotides. J. Clin. Invest. 93:1458–1464.
Shi, Y., et al. 1994. Transcatheter delivery of c-myc antisense oligomers reduces neointimal formation in a porcine model of coronary artery balloon injury. Circulation. 90:944–951.
Simons, M., Edelman, E.R., DeKeyser, J.-L., Langer, R., and Rosenberg, R. 1992. Antisense c-myb oligonucleotides inhibit intimal arterial smooth muscle cell accumulation in vivo. Nature. 359:67–70.
Wang, W., et al. 1996. Sequence-independent inhibition of in vitro smooth muscle cell proliferation, migration, and in vivo neointimal formation by phosphorothioate oligonucleotides. J. Clin. Invest. 98:443–450.
Various early "DNAzymes"
Breaker, R.R., and Joyce, G.F. 1994. A DNA enzyme that cleaves RNA. Chem. Biol. 1:223–229.
Breaker, R.R., and Joyce, G.F. 1995. A DNA enzyme with Mg2+-dependent RNA phosphodiesterase activity. Chem. Biol. 2:655–660.
Cuenoud, B., and Szostak, J.W. 1995. A DNA metalloenzyme with ligase activity. Nature. 375:611–614.
Faulhammer, D., and Famulok, M. 1996. Ca2+ as a cofactor for a novel RNA-cleaving deoxyribozyme. Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. Engl. 35:2837–2841.
Li, Y., and Sen, D. 1996. A catalytic DNA for porphyrin metallation. Nat. Struct. Biol. 3:743–747.
Various other references of interest
Antony, T., Thomas, T., Shirahata, A., and Thomas, T.J. 1999. Selectivity of polyamines on the stability of RNA-DNA hybrids containing phosphodiester and phosphorothioate oligodeoxyribonucleotides. Biochemistry. 38:10775–10784.
Guerrier-Takada, C., Gardiner, K., Marsh, T., Pace, N., and Altman, S. 1983. The RNA moiety of ribonuclease P is the catalytic subunit of the enzyme. Cell. 35:849–857.
Jackson, C.L., and Schwartz, S.M. 1992. Pharmacology of smooth muscle replication. Hypertension. 20:713–736.
Treisman, R. 1995. Journey to the surface of the cell: Fos regulation and the SRE. EMBO J. 14:4905–4913.