Title,Authors,Abstract,Published Year,Published Month,Journal,Volume,Issue,Pages,Accession Number,Study,REASONS FOR EXCLUSION
Drug abuse prevention in the workplace,"Cook, R. F.",,2000,,"Handbook of Drug Abuse Prevention Theory, Science and Practice",,,,,Cook 2000,Duplicate Article
Brief intervention to reduce substance use in class c male hospital employees: a randomised controllad trial,,"Background: Substance use in workplace is linked to risk of accidents, injury, poor health, absenteeism, and negative effects on the workplace atmosphere. Existing research focuses on alcohol related harm, while workplace use of other substances has been neglected. There are no randomised controlled studies of brief interventions in Indian hospital settings. Aim: To evaluate the effcacy of WHO ASSIST‐linked Brief Intervention (ALBI) for reducing risky patterns of substance use in Class C male workers at a tertiary‐care hospital in North India. Material and methods: The study was conducted in two phases. In Phase‐I a random list of 400 employees was generated from the entire pool of Class C male hospital workers. Data on the ASSIST risk categories (mild, moderate, and severe) was generated from Phase I. In Phase‐II moderate and high risk subjects ('screen‐positive' by ASSIST score) were randomised into Intervention and Control groups with 35 screen‐positive subjects in each group. The Intervention group was given a structured session as per ALBI protocol, while the control group was given a 30‐minute general talk on health related consequences associated with substance use. The subjects were compared on ASSIST score, WHOQOL‐BREF, RCQ and Motivation to seek treatment at baseline and at 3‐month follow up. Results: The percentage of 'screen‐positive' subjects for different substances was: tobacco‐28.6 %, alcohol‐24 %, and cannabis‐6.9 %. The inferential analysis showed that ALBI recipients had significant reduction of ASSIST scores for all risky use of substance compared to the control group (p<0.001). Changes in motivation toward action stage were documented significantly more in intervention group than in the control group. Participants receiving ALBI were significantly improved across WHOQOL‐BREF parameters and more motivated to seek treatment compared to the control group. Conclusion: The screening and ALBI were effective in: reducing substance use, increasing motivation to change and improving the QOL of the subjects at workplace setting.",2018,,Indian journal of psychiatry,60,5,S19‐,CN-01468453,,Duplicate Article
An assessment of drug testing within the construction industry,"Gerber, J. K.; Yacoubian, G. S., Jr.","Drug testing in the workplace has gone from virtual nonexistence to widespread employer acceptance during the past two decades. This growth is particularly significant for the construction industry. High rates of alcohol and other drug use, coupled with the high-risk, safety-sensitive nature of the industry, have prompted the development of a variety of drug surveillance and prevention strategies. Despite this growing vigilance, no scholarly works have examined the impact of drug-related policies in the construction industry. To address this limitation, we investigate the efficacy of workplace drug-testing programs in reducing injury incident rates and workers' compensation experience-rating modification factors (MODs) within the construction industry. Analyses indicate that companies with drug-testing programs experienced a 51 percent reduction in incident rates within two years of implementation. Moreover, companies that drug test their employees experienced a significant reduction in their MODs. Policy implications are discussed in light of the current findings.",2002,,J Drug Educ,32,1,53-68,12096557,Gerber 2002,Duplicate Article
The effects of copayments on substance abuse treatment expenditures and treatment reoccurrence,"Lo Sasso, A. T.; Lyons, J. S.","OBJECTIVE: Employers can influence treatment decisions by adjusting characteristics of the structure of the benefits they offer, such as copayments. The authors estimated the relationship between copayment levels for substance abuse treatment and both the insurers' expenditures for treatment and the reoccurrence of treatment. METHODS: Retrospective data from a Midwestern behavioral health insurer were used to identify persons with a diagnosis of a substance use disorder. The claims data were used to construct episodes of treatment. Using the variation in copayment levels across 211 different employer groups, the authors used multiple regression models to estimate the effect of copayment levels on treatment expenditures and the likelihood of a treatment reoccurrence. RESULTS: Copayment levels had a significant effect on the reoccurrence of substance abuse treatment. Each 10 percent increase in copayment was associated with a 1 percent increase in the probability of reoccurrence. Copayment levels had a significant effect on current-episode treatment expenditures. Each 10 percent increase in copayment was associated with an 8.7 percent decrease in total per-episode expenditures. From the plan's perspective, a $1 increase in copayment for outpatient substance abuse treatment reduced per-episode spending by $110; however, roughly $13 is lost from that saving because of the increased likelihood of treatment reoccurrence. CONCLUSIONS: The longer a person is retained in substance abuse treatment, the greater the likelihood of recovery. Copayments may represent a barrier to retention in treatment. Higher copayments for substance abuse treatment make treatment reoccurrence more likely.",2002,Dec,Psychiatr Serv,53,12,1605-11,12461223,LoSasso 2002,Duplicate Article
Methods for evaluating a mature substance abuse prevention/early intervention program,"Becker, L. R.; Hall, M.; Fisher, D. A.; Miller, T. R.","The authors describe methods for work in progress to evaluate four workplace prevention and/or early intervention programs designed to change occupational norms and reduce substance abuse at a major U.S. transportation company. The four programs are an employee assistance program, random drug testing, managed behavioral health care, and a peer-led intervention program. An elaborate mixed-methods evaluation combines data collection and analysis techniques from several traditions. A process-improvement evaluation focuses on the peer-led component to describe its evolution, document the implementation process for those interested in replicating it, and provide information for program improvement. An outcome-assessment evaluation examines impacts of the four programs on job performance measures (e.g., absenteeism, turnover, injury, and disability rates) and includes a cost- offset and employer cost-savings analysis. Issues related to using archival data, combining qualitative and quantitative designs, and working in a corporate environment are discussed.",2000,,Journal of Behavioral Health Services and Research,27,2,166-177,,Becker 2000,Full text not available
Brief intervention to reduce substance use in class C male hospital employees: a randomised controlled trial,"Prasad, S.; Basu, D.; Mattoo, S. K.; Subodh, B. N.","Background: Substance use in workplace is linked with risk of accidents, injury, poor health, absenteeism, and negative effects on the workplace atmosphere. Existing research focuses on alcohol related harm, while workplace use of other substances has been neglected. There are no randomised controlled studies of brief interventions in Indian hospital settings. Aim: To evaluate the effcacy of WHO ASSIST‐linked Brief Intervention (ALBI) for reducing risky patterns of substance use in Class C male workers at a tertiary‐care hospital in North India. Material and methods: The study was conducted in two phases. In Phase‐I a random list of 400 employees was generated from the entire pool of Class C male hospital workers. Data on the ASSIST risk categories (mild, moderate, and severe) was generated from Phase I. In Phase‐II moderate and high risk subjects ('screen‐positive' by ASSIST score) were randomised into Intervention and Control groups with 35 screen‐positive subjects in each group. The Intervention group was given a structured session as per ALBI protocol, while the control group was given a 30‐minute general talk on health related consequences associated with substance use. The subjects were compared on ASSIST score, WHOQOL‐BREF, RCQ and Motivation to Seek Treatment? at baseline and at 3‐month follow up. Results: The percentage of 'screen‐positive' subjects for different substances was: tobacco‐28. 6 %, alcohol‐24 %, and cannabis‐6. 9 %. The inferential analysis showed that ALBI recipients had significant reduction of ASSIST scores for all risky use of substance compared to the control group (p<0. 001). Changes in motivation toward action stage were documented significantly more in intervention group than in the control group. Participants receiving ALBI were significantly improved across WHOQOL‐BREF parameters and more motivated to seek treatment compared to the control group. Conclusion: The screening and ALBI were effective in: reducing substance use, increasing motivation to change and improving the QOL of the subjects at workplace setting.",2018,,Indian journal of psychiatry,60,5,S107‐,CN-01468441,Prasad 2018,Full text not available
Betriebliche Suchtprävention: Theoretisches Wissen vs Handlungskompetenz durch Schulungsmaßnahmen = Substance abuse prevention in the workplace: Theoretical knowledge and expertise after interventions,"Loeber, S.; Klein, O.; Mann, K.; Croissant, B.","Although several companies are requesting interventions for substance abuse prevention at the workplace and a wide variety of interventions is successfully introduced into practice, empirical studies investigating the efficacy of such interventions are rare. In the present study 100 executive managers of a German chemical company, who had participated in an intervention to prevent substance consumption at the workplace one year before, were applied a questionnaire to assess effects of the intervention. Data from 22 managers, who had so far not received such an intervention, were collected to serve as a control condition. The intervention itself was designed as a theory oriented half a day course and was conducted in groups of 10 to 12 executive managers of the company. By comparing participants and non-participants, we found significant differences with respect to the knowledge how to deal with substance-related problems of staff members. For example, participants reported more frequently to know the company agreement about addiction. Further, participants reported less frequently to wait until such problems were solved anyway. However, we found no evidence for transfer of theoretical knowledge into practice. For example, we detected no significant group differences with respect to the number of appraisal interviews conducted because of substance-related problems. Taken together, the results of our study indicate, that the implementation of a company agreement about addiction and its introduction into practice based on theoretical courses is not sufficient to produce considerable effects. As an alternative, based on previous experiences we propose a series of workshops with role-plays and feedback to establish expertise in interviewing techniques with substance-related problems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved)",2008,,"Fortschritte der Neurologie, Psychiatrie",76,2,92-96,2008-01821-003,Loeber 2008,Full text not available
Workplace health promotion: What evwence of effectiveness?,"Ferrano, M. M.; Borsani, A.","Workplace health promotion is a strategy that takes in consideration the synergic ejfects of behavioural and professional health risks. The workplace can help to improve workers' lifestyles, based on specific programmes conducted by trained occupational physicians. In this article we report on the conclusions of two recent reviews, assessing the evidences of effectiveness of workplace health promotion (WHP) programs, recently published. Even ifmost of the studies are influenced by methodological concerns and limitations, above ali the lack of control groups and the use of multiple and heterogenic outcome measures, it is possible to conclude that health assessment programmes with feedbacks are capable to reduce the risks of alcohol abuse, to increase smoking cessation and to improve levels of physical activity in voluntarily recruited employs. Finally, preliminary indications of the SIMLII Workplace Health Promotion Guidelines are briefly commented. © PI-ME, Pavia 2011.",2011,,Giornale Italiano di Medicina del Lavoro ed Ergonomia,33,2 SUPPL.,44-47,,Ferrano 2011,Full text not available
Staff screening. Random drug tests ruled out,"O'Dowd, A.",,2001,,Nursing times,97,16,4,,O'Dowd 2001,Full text not available
Effect of random drug screening on fatal commercial truck accident rates,"Swena, D. D.; Gaines Jr, W.",,1999,,International Journal of Drug Testing,2,,13-Jan,,Swena 1999,Full text not available
Drug addiction prevention in the workplace--feasibility study in a company from the chemical industry,"Croissant, B.; Klein, O.; Lober, S.; Mann, K.","INTRODUCTION: In recent years drug prevention at the place of work has became increasingly important for programmes focussing on health promotion at the place of work. Drug prevention programmes aim at reducing cost and protecting the employees from physical harm. There are virtually no reliable figures from surveys in companies. To date intervention programme in companies have hardly been verified. In this feasibility study we intended to examine the practicability of an evaluation of an intervention programme in a large chemical company by means of questionnaires and we present preliminary intervention effects. METHODS: In the context of a pilot study we conducted and evaluated a drug prevention programme at the place of work. Focus was on illegal designer drugs. The programme was conducted as a one‐day workshop for trainers in superior management positions. We used a feedback form and a detailed questionnaire on drug prevention in the working place. 41 trainers who participated in the seminar were compared with a control group of 12 trainers who did not participate. RESULTS: The intervention programme was well accepted by the participants. Follow‐up data demonstrated, that participants in the seminar had far better knowledge of the employment agreement on addiction and drugs and of the possible ways to get help and they were far more active in realising the employment agreement. CONCLUSION: To achieve a long‐term improvement of drug abuse in companies it is not enough to include and implement a passage on drug abuse and addiction in the employment agreement. Well‐instructed trainers talk far often with colleagues displaying abnormal or addictive behaviour, resulting in more rapid therapeutic interventions",2004,,Gesundheitswesen (bundesverband der arzte des offentlichen gesundheitsdienstes (germany)),66,8‐9,505‐510,CN-00689892,Croissant 2004,Full text not available
Motivational versus confrontational interviewing: a comparison of substance abuse assessment practices at employee assistance programs,"Schneider, R. J.; Casey, J.; Kohn, R.","The aim of this study was to conduct a quasi-experimental comparison of two employee assistance program (EAP) assessment approaches with substance abusers: confrontational interviewing (CI) and motivational interviewing (MI). A total of 176 EAP clients from 14 study sites met the study criteria, and 89 (51%) agreed to participate in the study. At three and nine months postassessment, both the MI and CI groups showed similar changes in readiness for change, completion of initial treatment plans, and subsequent treatment. Most important, both the MI and CI participants showed significant and comparable improvement on all of the substance abuse baseline measures as well as measures of family-social well-being and effects of drinking/drugging on work performance. The results open the door for EAP counselors to use an empirically supported assessment style that is at least as effective as the traditional confrontational approach.",2000,Feb,J Behav Health Serv Res,27,1,60-74,10695241,Schneider 2000,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
The effect of an enhanced employee assistance program (EAP) intervention on EAP utilization,"Zarkin, G. A.; Bray, J. W.; Karuntzos, G. T.; Demiralp, B.","OBJECTIVE: An enhanced employee assistance program (EAP) intervention was developed that delivers comprehensive EAP outreach services to all employees who may have alcohol-related and other workplace problems; standard EAP materials traditionally targeted at white men were enhanced to include women and minorities. This study evaluates whether the enhanced EAP intervention increased EAP utilization. METHOD: The enhanced EAP intervention was developed at a large community-based not-for-profit EAP located in Rockford, Illinois. Two primary worksites and 16 other newly contracted worksites received the enhanced EAP intervention and served as intervention sites; the 107 other worksites serviced by the EAP were used as comparison sites. We used time series data from 1991 to 1998 and included repeated measures on each firm's quarterly EAP utilization. RESULTS: The enhanced EAP intervention increased the mean number of women and minority cases per worksite by 58%, white male cases by 45% and total EAP cases by 53%. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows that, for a modest cost, the enhanced EAP intervention successfully increased utilization of EAP by all employees, especially utilization by women and minority employees. It also shows that traditional EAP services and outreach materials can be made more appealing to women and minorities without adversely affecting their utilization by white men.",2001,May,J Stud Alcohol,62,3,351-8,11414345,Zarkin 2001,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
The effectiveness of preemployment drug screening in the prediction of employment outcome,"Ryan, J.; Zwerling, C.; Jones, M.","Studies of adverse employment outcomes associated with positive preemployment drug screens have tracked employees for only about 1 year. Changes in drug use after hire may invalidate the predictions of employment outcome in later years which are essential for cost-benefit analyses. This blinded, prospective cohort study tracks absence, industrial accidents, occupational injuries, discipline, and turnover in 2537 screened employees through an average of 2 years. Marijuana-positive urines predicted increased turnover, accidents, injuries, discipline, and absence, but these risks appeared lower in the second year than the first. Cocaine-positive urines predicted increased turnover, accidents, injuries, discipline, and absence at levels not consistently different than the first year. Cost-benefit analyses of drug screening project employment risks throughout employees' careers. This study raises the possibility that elevated risks may decrease after the first year.",1992,Nov,J Occup Med,34,11,1057-63,1432294,Ryan 1992,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Private substance abuse treatments: are some programs more effective than others?,"McLellan, A. T.; Grissom, G. R.; Brill, P.; Durell, J.; Metzger, D. S.; O'Brien, C. P.","There have been few studies of treatments for substance dependence among private programs. The present study compared the patient populations, treatment services provided and six-month outcomes of employed, insured patients referred by an employee assistance program to four private treatment programs (two inpatient and two outpatient). Subjects were alcohol and/or cocaine dependent males referred from a single employer. Ninety-four percent were successfully contacted at six-month follow-up, with confirmatory urinalysis and breathalyzer samples taken. Three results were obtained. First, there were significant and pervasive improvements shown in the total sample at follow-up. Fifty-nine percent were completely abstinent, 82% were working and only 8% required re-treatment. Second, there were significant differences among the programs in levels of improvement and six-month outcomes. Finally, the differences in efficacy were related to the differences in the nature and amount of treatment services provided.",1993,May-Jun,J Subst Abuse Treat,10,3,243-54,8391086,McLellan 1993,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
How are addicted physicians treated? A national survey of Physician Health Programs,"DuPont, R. L.; McLellan, A. T.; Carr, G.; Gendel, M.; Skipper, G. E.","INTRODUCTION: Physicians with substance use disorders receive care that is qualitatively different from and reputedly more effective than that offered to the general population, yet there has been no national study of this distinctive approach. To learn more about the national system of Physician Health Programs (PHPs) that manage the care of addicted physicians, we surveyed all 49 state PHP medical directors (86% responded) to characterize their treatment, support, and monitoring regimens. RESULTS: PHPs do not provide substance abuse treatment. Under authority from state licensing boards, state laws, and contractual agreements, they promote early detection, assessment, evaluation, and referral to abstinence-oriented (usually) residential treatment for 60 to 90 days. This is followed by 12-step-oriented outpatient treatment. Physicians then receive randomly scheduled urine monitoring, with status reports issued to employers, insurers, and state licensing boards for (usually) 5 or more years. Outcomes are very positive, with only 22% of physicians testing positive at any time during the 5 years and 71% still licensed and employed at the 5-year point. CONCLUSION: Addicted physicians receive an intensity, duration, and quality of care that is rarely available in most standard addiction treatments: (a) intensive and prolonged residential and outpatient treatment, (b) 5 years of extended support and monitoring with significant consequences, and (c) involvement of family, colleagues, and employers in support and monitoring. Although not available to the general public now, several aspects of this continuing care model could be adapted and used for the general population.",2009,Jul,J Subst Abuse Treat,37,1,7-Jan,19482236,DuPont 2009,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Assessing the Association between Pre-Employment Drug Screening and a Reduction in Workplace Accidents and Injuries,"Fox, Jon Myron; Ness, Lawrence","Further reductions in workplace accident rates in the United States are recognized as needed. The purpose of this quasi-experimental quantitative study was to expand on previous scholarly work, demonstrating enhanced workplace health and safety through a reduction of workplace accidents and injuries. The association between pre-screening employees for drug use, and accident and/or injury rates was assessed. Using two subsets of archival records, it was investigated whether or not lower workplace accident/injury rates were associated with records representing employees pre-screened for drug use, compared with records representing employees who were not pre-screened. Archive data records were randomly sampled, creating a group of 300 records representing employees pre-screened for drug use before hire, testing negative, and a comparison group of 300 records representing employees not undergoing any drug screening. Average annual accident rate for the pre-screened employees' subset (2.16%) was less than one-half the rate for the non-screened employees' subset (4.50%). A Mann-Whitney U test showed pre-screened employee accident/injury rate (Mdn = 2) differed from non-screened employees ( Mdn = 2, U = 40950.0, p < 0.0013, r = .13). A Kruskal-Wallis test indicated significant effect of gender (H(2) = 7.2924, p < .0001), and industry sector (H(2) = 12.1231, p = .0172) on the non-screened employee subset. A Mann-Whitney U test showed positive post-accident rates of pre-screened employees (Mdn = 99) differed from non-screened employees (Mdn = 99, U = 40864.0, p < 0.0011, r = .13). A Kruskal-Wallis test indicated significant effect of gender (H(2) = 7.6620, p < .0001), and industry sector (H(2) = 12.7233, p = .0119) on the non-screened subset. A Pearson's Chi-Square Test for Independence revealed industry classification assignment as not independent, χ²(12, N = 600) = 109.26, p < .05. Study findings indicate a policy of including pre-employment drug screening in workplace drug testing programs is good practice, based on the association of pre-employment screening with workplace accident and injury reduction. Future research is recommended examining how gender and industry sector assignment affect workplace accidents and injuries, and if a relationship between pre-employment drug screening and post-accident drug testing enhance the effects of both tests.",2013,2013,,,3571489,188,1431144392,Fox 2013,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Coerced treatment for substance abuse problems detected through workplace urine surveillance: is it effective?,"Lawental, E.; McLellan, A. T.; Grissom, G. R.; Brill, P.; O'Brien, C.","With the advent of on-site urine testing and other initiatives designed to reduce substance abuse at the workplace, employees who are found to have used alcohol and/or drugs have been coerced into substance abuse treatments under threat of job loss. This widespread practice has produced three questions relative to these practices. First, do these employees have significant substance abuse problems or are they merely ""recreational users"" who have gotten caught? Second, will these employees participate in standard treatments or will they resist them? Finally, will standard substance abuse treatments provide any benefits to these coerced patients relative to other self-referred patients in treatment? We compared the pretreatment problems, during treatment performance and posttreatment outcomes of 96 employed, insured participants who were coerced into treatment at four private treatment programs due to detection of drug use on the job, to the same measures collected on a comparison group of 161 patients from the same job sites who were self-referred admissions to the same four treatment programs. Results showed that the coerced group had significant substance abuse and other life problems at the start of treatment, but that these problems were generally less severe or chronic than those of the self-referred group. Coerced participants were significantly more likely to remain in treatment (either inpatient or outpatient) than the self-referred participants. Posttreatment follow-up of coerced patients indicated marked improvements in alcohol and drug use, employment, medical, family, and psychiatric problems. These levels of improvement were comparable to those shown by the self-referred patients. We conclude that workplace urine surveillance was successful in detecting employees with significant substance abuse related problems, and that referral to standard treatment was associated with substantial improvements in those problems.",1996,,J Subst Abuse,8,1,115-28,8743772,Lawental 1996,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Pre-Employment Drug-Testing in the Full-Service Restaurant Industry and its Relationship to Employee Work Performance Factors,"Kitterlin, M.; Moreo, P. J.",,2012,,Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality and Tourism,11,1,36-51,,Kitterlin 2012,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
The role of drugs in workplace injuries: Is drug testing appropriate?,"Macdonald, S.","In the past decade, many employers have adopted drug-testing programs to reduce workplace injuries. However, little scientific evidence shows that drug use is a significant and substantial cause of total workplace injuries. The purpose of this study was to empirically assess the role of drugs and alcohol in causing workplace injuries. Questionnaires were received from 882 Ontario employees in a household survey. Results showed that many variables were significantly related to job injuries. The variables were ranked according to the relative importance of each variable's contribution to total job injuries. Alcohol problems, licit drug use, and illicit drug use ranked 7, 11, and 12 respectively among a group of 12 significant variables. In order to examine the likelihood that drug use was a cause of job injuries, the relationship between job injuries and alcohol problems, licit drug use, and illicit drug use was examined across categories of third variables. For age, the relationship between drug use and injuries remained strong for the youngest age group, but disappeared for the oldest age group. Logistic regression analysis confirmed the plausibility of noncausal explanations of job injuries for illicit drug use, but not for alcohol problems or licit drug use. Overall, the results indicated that illicit drug use does not appear to be a major cause of job injuries.The implications of these results for drug- testing programs are discussed.",1995,,Journal of Drug Issues,25,4,703-722,,Macdonald 1995,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Effect of insurance parity on substance abuse treatment,"Azzone, V.; Frank, R. G.; Normand, S. L.; Burnam, M. A.","OBJECTIVE: This study examined the impact of insurance parity on the use, cost, and quality of substance abuse treatment. METHODS: The authors compared substance abuse treatment spending and utilization from 1999 to 2002 for continuously enrolled beneficiaries covered by Federal Employees Health Benefit (FEHB) plans, which require parity coverage of mental health and substance use disorders, with spending and utilization among beneficiaries in a matched set of health plans without parity coverage. Logistic regression models estimated the probability of any substance abuse service use. Conditional on use, linear models estimated total and out-of-pocket spending. Logistic regression models for three quality indicators for substance abuse treatment were also estimated: identification of adult enrollees with a new substance abuse diagnosis, treatment initiation, and treatment engagement. Difference-in-difference estimates were computed as (postparity - preparity) differences in outcomes in plans without parity subtracted from those in FEHB plans. RESULTS: There were no significant differences between FEHB and non-FEHB plans in rates of change in average utilization of substance abuse services. Conditional on service utilization, the rate of substance abuse treatment out-of-pocket spending declined significantly in the FEHB plans compared with the non-FEHB plans (mean difference=-$101.09, 95% confidence interval [CI]=-$198.06 to -$4.12), whereas changes in total plan spending per user did not differ significantly. With parity, more patients had new diagnoses of a substance use disorder (difference-in-difference risk=.10%, CI=.02% to .19%). No statistically significant differences were found for rates of initiation and engagement in substance abuse treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Findings suggest that for continuously enrolled populations, providing parity of substance abuse treatment coverage improved insurance protection but had little impact on utilization, costs for plans, or quality of care.",2011,Feb,Psychiatr Serv,62,2,129-34,21285090,Azzone 2011,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Drug testing practices in the US construction industry in 2008,"Olbina, Svetlana; Hinze, Jimmie; Arduengo, Christopher","Drug testing is an effective way to improve jobsite safety, productivity and profits. Since drug use impairs the abilities of construction workers, many construction companies have implemented drug testing policies. The research aim was to identify the current drug testing practices of construction contractors. The research objectives were to determine: (1) the extent of the implementation of drug testing; (2) testing practices being used; (3) testing methods being used; (4) the most frequently drugs used; and (5) the use and prevalence of adulterants to cheat on drug tests. In 2008 the data were collected through surveys sent to US construction firms that were randomly selected from the Blue Book of Building and Construction. The results show that drug use continues to be a concern although the extent of drug use has declined in recent years. Most of the firms conduct both pre-employment drug screening and random drug testing. Marijuana and cocaine are the primary drugs used. Urine analysis continues to be the most common drug test used, while other testing methods are being explored with some hesitance. Cheating on drug tests appears to be a major concern. The results show that there is a statistically significant relationship between drug usage and safety performance. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]",2011,"2011
2011-12-01",Construction Management and Economics,29,10,1043,907072084,Olbina 2011,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Promoting Employee Assistance Program Services to Employees,"Lashley-Giancola, Wendy; Richardson, Rhonda",,1996,9/16/1996,Employee Assistance Quarterly,12,2,33-46,,Lashley-Giancola 1996,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
The Management of Workplace Deviance: Organizational Responses to Employee Drug Use,"Knudsen, H. K.; Roman, P. M.; Johnson, J. A.","Although research has explored the diffusion of drug testing as a management technique, little attention has been paid to how organizations manage employees who fail drug tests. Organizations can choose a strategy that externalizes or internalizes the drug-positive employee. Furthermore, those organizations that internalize drug-positive employees may respond in a rehabilitative or punitive manner. This paper explores the variation in organizational responses to positive drug tests by considering industrial sector, organizational structure, and culture. Using data from the 1997 National Employee Survey, multinomial logistic regression results indicate significant differences in organizational responses to positive drug tests based on the industrial sector, unionization, the provision of employee assistance program services, establishment size, and formalization.",2004,,Journal of Drug Issues,34,1,121-143,,Knudsen 2004,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Preventing Prescription Drug Misuse in Work Settings: Efficacy of a Brief Intervention in Health Consciousness,"Lucas, G.; Neeper, M.; Linde, B.; Bennett, J.","BACKGROUND: It is becoming more commonplace for employees to use prescription medication outside of intended use. Opioid and other prescription misuse has implications for the health and productivity of workers. Easy-to-access webinars that help employees learn about alternatives to prescription use may decrease risk. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to examine the efficacy of an interactive but brief health consciousness and prescription drug intervention for a diverse sample of employees and show effectiveness via both Internet-delivered webinar and classroom delivery. METHODS: Employees from a variety of workplaces filled out pre- and post-questionnaires upon completion of a one-hour long intervention. RESULTS: A total of 114 participants completed the pre- and post-questionnaires. Results showed that, compared with before the training, participants reported significantly more knowledge about prescription drug misuse and alternatives to prescription drug use after the training (t113=7.91, P<.001). Moreover, the medium of presentation (ie, face-to-face vs webinar) did not significantly impact effectiveness of the training (F1,98=1.15, P=.29). CONCLUSIONS: In both webinar and classroom formats, participants gained knowledge about alternatives to prescription drug use. This intervention appears to be beneficial to employees and assists in the awareness of prescription drug use in general and in the workplace.",2017,6-Jul,J Med Internet Res,19,7,e242,28684383,Lucas 2017,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Employee Assistance Program utilization for substance abuse problems and organizational climate as perceived by supervisory personnel,"Alexander, P.; Smith, F. J.",,1992,Summer,J Health Hum Resour Adm,15,1,110-24,10171279,Alexander 1992,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Emotional intelligence training for reducing illicit drug use potential among Iranian nurses: A pilot study,"Goudarzian, A. H.; Esmaeili, R.; Alizadeh-Navaei, R.; Yousefi, M.; Balouchi, A.","Background: Some studies show that a low level of emotional intelligence (EI) is associated with self-destructive behaviors such as deviant behavior or smoking. Objective: The current study aimed at determining the effects of EI on the illicit drug use potential among nurses. Methods: The current quasi-experimental study was conducted in 2015 on 70 hospital nurses. Samples were randomly selected and divided into 2 groups (35 nurses in each group). Then, the experimental group subjects attended EI training sessions. Results: Illicit drug use potential in the experimental grouphadsignificant negative changes in comparison with that of the control group (P < 0.001) after the completion of the training sessions. Conclusions: Given the importance of EI to help nurses to avoid risky behaviors, holding training sessions on EI for nurses and nursing students appears necessary. © 2017, Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences.",2017,,Iranian Journal of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences,11,3,,,Goudarzian 2017,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Behavioral Health Insurance Parity for Federal Employees,"Goldman, Howard H.; Frank, Richard G.; Burnam, M. Audrey; Huskamp, Haiden A.; Ridgely, M. Susan; Normand, Sharon-Lise T.; Young, Alexander S.; Barry, Colleen L.; Azzone, Vanessa; Busch, Alisa B.; Azrin, Susan T.; Moran, Garrett; Lichtenstein, Carolyn; Blasinsky, Margaret","Background: To improve insurance coverage of mental health and substance-abuse services, the Federal Employees Health Benefits (FEHB) Program offered mental health and substance-abuse benefits on a par with general medical benefits beginning in January 2001. The plans were encouraged to manage care. Methods: We compared seven FEHB plans from 1999 through 2002 with a matched set of health plans that did not have benefits on a par with mental health and substance-abuse benefits (parity of mental health and substance-abuse benefits). Using a difference- in-differences analysis, we compared the claims patterns of matched pairs of FEHB and control plans by examining the rate of use, total spending, and out-of-pocket spending among users of mental health and substance-abuse services. Results: The difference-in-differences analysis indicated that the observed increase in the rate of use of mental health and substance-abuse services after the implementation of the parity policy was due almost entirely to a general trend in increased use that was observed in comparison health plans as well as FEHB plans. The implementation of parity was associated with a statistically significant increase in use in one plan (+0.78 percent, P<0.05) a significant decrease in use in one plan (-0.96 percent, P<0.05), and no significant difference in use in the other five plans (range, -0.38 percent to +0.23 percent; P>0.05 for each comparison). For beneficiaries who used mental health and substance-abuse services, spending attributable to the implementation of parity decreased significantly for three plans (range, -$201.99 to -$68.97; P<0.05 for each comparison) and did not change significantly for four plans (range, -$42.13 to +$27.11; P>0.05 for each comparison). The implementation of parity was associated with significant reductions in out-of-pocket spending in five of seven plans. Conclusions: When coupled with management of care, implementation of parity in insurance benefits for behavioral health care can improve insurance protection without increasing total costs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)",2006,,The New England Journal of Medicine,354,13,1378-1386,2006-04152-001,Goldman 2006,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
The effect of parity-induced copayment reductions on adolescent utilization of substance use services,"Ciemins, E. L.","OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to determine if the reduction in copayment amount by a large self-insured state employer increased utilization of adolescent services. Specifically, the study sought to discover if the number of unique adolescent users of substance use outpatient services increased as a result of reductions in cost-sharing arrangements. METHOD: The data utilized in this study were 31,585 records from administrative claims data on utilization of mental health and substance abuse services from members of a state indemnity plan fromJuly 1998 through December 2001, translating to 36 months of pre-intervention data and 6 months of postintervention data. Monthly longitudinal data before and after benefit design change were analyzed using a quasi-experimental time series design, using Box and Jenkins' autoregressive, integrated, moving-average time-series modeling methods. The primary outcome measure was the number of unique users of services. RESULTS: The hypothesis that service utilization would increase following the implementation of a reduction in copayment amount (the intervention) was supported in these analyses for adolescents' substance use service utilization. A significant increase in the number of unique adolescent users of substance use services was detected in the month following the intervention (p < .01). CONCLUSIONS: The results of this study suggest that a reduction in adolescents' substance use service copayment requirements to a level equal to those for general medical services may be a step toward assuring full parity between such types of services. These findings provide potentially important information regarding the possible effects of broader policy changes, as parity in benefit design is a common component of laws that attempt to ensure ""full parity.""",2004,Nov,J Stud Alcohol,65,6,731-5,15700510,Ciemins 2004,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
The relationship between health insurance characteristics and the use of behavioral health treatment services,"Dunlap, Laura J.; Norton, Edward C.","Rationale. Many people delay health care treatment and some never seek care from the formal health care system. It is estimated that 28 percent of the U.S. adult population in any year has a diagnosable mental or addictive disorder, and yet less than one-third of these individuals seek treatment. Objective. The objective of this study is to estimate the effect of health insurance characteristics on mental health and substance use (MH/SA) treatment utilization for privately-insured employees and their dependents. Methodology. Using a two-part model, I estimate the effect of MH/SA health insurance characteristics on the decision to use MH/SA services and, conditional on use, the number of treatment days. Probability of use is modeled using a random-effects logit model and the number of treatment days is modeled using a random-effects negative binomial model. Data used are private insurance enrollment and claims data for 1997-1998 from MEDSTAT's Marketscan® database. Results. Individuals are found to respond to expected out-of-pocket expenses for outpatient MH care, but this response is very small. Furthermore, MH/SA health characteristics appear to have little or no effect on SA treatment utilization for spouses and other dependents. My models show that the effect of MH/SA health insurance varies for individuals by their relationship to the policy (i.e., primary beneficiary versus spouse or other dependent). Primary beneficiaries are found to be more responsive to these characteristics than spouses and other dependents. When significant, the requirement of precertification by an employee assistance program (EAP) has a negative effect on MH/SA utilization. Conclusions. My findings suggest that the response to cost-sharing for MH care demand is similar to general medical care and brings into question previous arguments against parity for MH/SA treatment. Finally, the role of an EAP is not straightforward. Rather than facilitating treatment access. EAP precertification may create an obstacle to treatment and discourage utilization. However, it is also possible that EAP precertification may decrease formal utilization by providing some brief MH/SA services to individuals with milder conditions.",2006,2006,,,3207327,200,305282925,Dunlap 2006,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Employment follow-up after initial drug screening,"Singer, R. B.",,1991,Spring,J Insur Med,23,1,34-7,10171642,Singer 1991,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Drug assessment methods for the workplace,"Cook, R. F.; Hersch, R. K.; McPherson, T. L.",,1999,,Drug Testing Methods: Assessment and Evaluation,,,,,Cook 1999,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Workplace drug testing outside the U.S,"Pierce, A.",,2007,,Drug Abuse Handbook,,,765-775,,Pierce 2007,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
A process model of health consciousness: Its application to the prevention of workplace prescription drug misuse,"Bennett, Joel B.; Lucas, Gale M.; Linde, Brittany D.; Neeper, Michael A.; Hudson, Michael; Gatchel, Robert J.","The concept of health consciousness (HC), previously studied as a dispositional construct, holds promise for brief prevention training in work settings. The current study developed a more process‐oriented model of HC. Employer’s increasing concerns about worker prescription drug (Rx) misuse represents an opportunity to study and improve HC. Two pilot studies delivered a brief training program and assessed short‐term, pre‐ to post–self‐reports of factors related to HC. The first pilot (n = 162) attempted to evaluate a stress/resilience program ('Raw Coping Power') that sought to improve worker ability to recognize and correct unhealthy coping behaviors. A second pilot (n = 114) attempted to evaluate an Rx misuse prevention program that sought to enhance awareness of HC as a protective factor. Both pilots used a driver analysis to examine correlates of improved HC. These correlates included increased confidence in one’s ability to evaluate risks, and awareness of healthy alternatives. Many employees also found the concept of HC useful. Previous writings about HC, in combination with current results, informed the design of a new, process‐oriented model of HC. The current paper offers this model and a driver analysis methodology that future researchers can use to further explore and more fully evaluate brief HC interventions in work settings. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved)",2018,,Journal of Applied Biobehavioral Research,,,,2018-24465-001,Bennett 2018,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
"The parenting partnership: The evaluation of a human service/corporate workplace collaboration for the prevention of substance abuse and mental health problems, and the promotion of family and work adjustment","Felner, R. D.; Brand, S.; Mulhall, K. E.; Counter, B.; Millman, J. B.; Fried, J.","A partnership between corporate worksites, a community-based prevention agency, and families in those worksites is described. Its primary goals were the reduction of family risk and enhancement of family protective factors that predispose children and youth to substance abuse and related social and emotional difficulties. A related goal of the program is to reduce family stress levels and attitudes that may influence the parents' levels of risk for substance abuse and related disorder. The program delivery strategy is conceived of as part of the necessart efforts of prevention programs to reach target populations in host settings in which they may naturally participate, thereby reducing obstacles and barriers to participation that often impede prevention efforts. Evaluation revealed that the program was generally better able to retain parents for a fairly lengthy period, and with high rates of attendance. Program attendance was also not affected by parental background characteristics that, in other delivery approaches, are often associated with poor attendance and high drop-out levels. Results also indicated that levels of program exposure (dosage) do make a significant difference in the efficacy of such efforts as those parents in the program who participated in higher percentages and numbers of sessions (i.e. more than 80% of sessions) showed both short-term and longer-term (i.e. across 18 month follow-ups) gains in their ratings of the target child's behavior problems and strengths, substance abuse resistance related knowledge and attitudes, reduced parental stress, depression and irritability, and increased utilization of social support. By contrast, parents who received a low program exposure exhibited a more restricted set of short-term gains. The findings are discussed in terms of their importance for consideration of program dosage for prevention programs, and the need to attend to the context in which programming is offered as it may facilitate or impede efforts to provide levels of dosage and fidelity to create enduring impacts.",1994,12/22/1994,The journal of primary prevention,15,2,123-46,,Felner 1994,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
The use of EAPs in dealing with drug abuse in the workplace,"Roman, P. M.",,1989,,,91,,271-86,2509929,Roman 1989,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Results of the drug testing program at Southern Pacific Railroad,"Taggart, R. W.",,1989,,Drugs in the Workplace: Research and Evaluation Data,,,,,Taggart 1989,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
impact of employee assistance programs on substance abusers and workplace safety,"Elliott, Karen; Shelley, Kyna","Businesses have dealt with substance abuse in different ways. Some organizations have established Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs) to address these problems. One large national company chose to fire employees with positive drug screens, offer them EAP services, and then consider them for rehire after treatment. A study of performance records for 12,167 employees with safety incidents revealed that rehired employees had a significantly higher incident rate than the company's general population. Results indicated no difference in pre- and post-EAP incident rates for rehired workers, and the post-EAP incident rate fluctuated for 2 years. Implications of hiring/rehiring individuals who abuse drugs and alcohol are discussed, and suggestions are made for future research. [PUBLICATION ABSTRACT]",2005,"Sep 2005
2018-10-05",Journal of Employment Counseling,42,3,125-132,237014223,Elliott 2005,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Early employment testing for marijuana: Demo-graphic and employees retention patterns,"Blank, D. L.; Fenton, J. W.",,1989,,Drugs in the Workplace: Research and Evaluation Data,,,,,Blank 1989,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Employee drug testing: Study Shows improved productivity and attendance and decreased workers' compensation and turnover,"Fortner, N. A.; Martin, D. M.; Esen, S. E.; Shelton, L.","Human resource professionals were asked about their organizations' drug testing programs and reported the following perceptions after the implementation of a drug testing program: One-fifth (19%) of companies experienced an increase in employee productivity after the implementation of a drug testing program, employers with high absenteeism rates (more than 15%) reported a drop from 9% to 4% after implementing a drug testing program, an improvement of 56%; companies with high workers' compensation incidence rates (more than 6%) reported a drop from 14% to 6% after implementing drug testing programs, an improvement of 57%; and 16% of companies reported a net employee turnover decrease. Additional research needs to be conducted to further confirm these findings, but this initial pilot study suggests that drug testing has a positive impact in companies creating a more productive, safe, and stable workforce.",2011,,Journal of Global Drug Policy and Practice,5,4,22-Jan,,Fortner 2011,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Substance abuse intervention for health care workers: A preliminary report,"Lapham, Sandra C. I.; Chang, Iyiin; Gregory, Cindy","The Workplace Managed Care Cooperative Agreement project will evaluate whether enhancements to existing substance abuse prevention/early intervention programs can prevent the onset of risky drinking, reduce prevalence of risky drinking, better identify employees who abuse alcohol and drugs, and improve employee wellness. A study describes one such enhancement (Project WISE) implemented at Lovelace Health Systems. Project WISE includes relatively low-cost elements such as substance abuse awareness training, information on how to reduce drinking and brief motivational counseling. Evaluation will consist of baseline comparisons of the intervention and comparison sites, a process evaluation, a qualitative analysis using focus groups and an outcome evaluation using health and work records.",2000,"May 2000
2014-08-23",The Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research,27,2,131-43,205218824; 10795124,Lapham 2000,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Overview on drug and alcohol testing in the workplace,"Hanson, M.","A flashpoint in the debate over workplace responses to alcohol and drug use by members of the workforce centres on the chemical testing of current employees and job applicants for alcohol and drug use. Drug testing may be the most contentious issue faced by enterprises struggling to develop fair and effective programmes to deal with the consequences of substance use in the workplace. The present paper examines scientific evidence on the nature and extent of alcohol and drug use by members of the workforce, evidence linking alcohol and drug use to workplace problems, workplace strategies for managing alcohol- and drug-related difficulties, and arguments for and against drug and alcohol testing. To date, the evidence supportive of alcohol and drug testing is inconclusive. Testing programmes may be useful in identifying drug users in the workforce. Their deterrent value is uncertain, however, and they are not efficient tools for linking drug users to assistance programmes. Enterprises that are contemplating establishing testing programmes should consider: (a) whether substance use is a problem in their setting; (b) whether testing will respond to the problem; (c) the costs and benefits of testing; and (d) any ethical and legal questions raised by the programmes.",1993,,Bulletin on narcotics,45,2,Mar-44,,Hanson 1993,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Meta-evaluation of Worksite Health Promotion economic return studies: 2005 Update,"Chapman, L. S.",,2005,Jul-Aug,American Journal of Health Promotion,19,6,11-Jan,16022209,Chapman 2005,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Drug testing as symbolic managerial action,"Cavanaugh, J. M.; Prasad, P.",,1994,May,Organization Science,5,2,267-271,WOS:A1994NW27700010,Cavanaugh 1994,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Assessing the effects of employee assistance programs: a review of employee assistance program evaluations,"Colantonio, A.","Employee assistance programs have grown at a dramatic rate, yet the effectiveness of these programs has been called into question. The purpose of this paper was to assess the effectiveness of employee assistance programs (EAPs) by reviewing recently published EAP evaluations. All studies evaluating EAPs published since 1975 from peer-reviewed journals in the English language were included in this analysis. Each of the articles was assessed in the following areas: (a) program description (subjects, setting, type of intervention, format), (b) evaluation design (research design, variables measured, operational methods), and (c) program outcomes. Results indicate numerous methodological and conceptual weaknesses and issues. These weaknesses included lack of controlled research designs and short time lags between pre- and post-test measures. Other problems identified are missing information regarding subjects, type of intervention, how variables are measured (operational methods), and reliability and validity of evaluation instruments. Due to the aforementioned weaknesses, positive outcomes could not be supported. Recommendations are made for future EAP evaluations.",1989,Jan-Feb,Yale J Biol Med,62,1,13-22,2728498,Colantonio 1989,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
A workplace intervention to reduce alcohol and drug consumption: a nonrandomized single-group study,"Gomez-Recasens, M.; Alfaro-Barrio, S.; Tarro, L.; Llaurado, E.; Sola, R.","BackgroundThe consumption of alcohol and other drugs causes social and health problems in industrialized societies. Furthermore, alcohol and drug consumption in the workplace is associated with work accidents, absenteeism and low productivity. The aim of the current study is to reduce alcohol and drug consumption among workers in the service industry and, as a secondary aim, to improve their healthy habits through the reduction of alcohol and other drug consumption in their leisure time.MethodsThis nonrandomized, single-group study was conducted in 12 work centers. The intervention began in 2009 and emphasized 1) health promotion and health monitoring, which included a) alcohol and drug awareness and b) the evaluation and monitoring of alcohol and drug consumption through a semistructured interview designed to assess risky consumption; urine tests aimed at detecting alcohol, cannabis and cocaine use; an Alcotest based on expired air to test for the recent consumption of alcohol and a saliva exam to test for the recent consumption of six drugs; and 2) secondary prevention if risky consumption was identified. Risky alcohol consumption was defined as the ingestion of more than 28 standard drink units (SDUs)/week among men and more than 17 SDUs/week among women (taking into account both work and leisure time). Drug consumption was considered risky consumption.ResultsA total of 1103 workers participated, and each received 5h of awareness training. Those who presented with risky consumption received secondary prevention training. The prevalence of risky alcohol consumption decreased by 4.1% (baseline: 14.7% reduced to 10.6% in the first year; p=0.001), a reduction that was maintained over a 3-year follow-up period.ConclusionA comprehensive program of worker health surveillance that involves stakeholders and includes monitoring can be a means of potentially improving compliance with workplace promotion programs, resulting in the facilitation of such beneficial, desired behavior change in areas such as alcohol and drug consumption.",2018,Nov,BMC Public Health,18,,10,WOS:000450798000004,Gomez-Recasens 2018,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Workplace drug abuse prevention initiatives: A review,"Dusenbury, L.","Likely key elements of effective prevention strategies emerging from the literature (and from discussions with experts) are summarized. These include: (1) program content based on proven prevention theory and research; (2) comprehensive approaches that address multiple risk and protective factors, and generalize across settings; (3) material that is relevant during important transitions in an employee's life and career (4) sensitivity to the culture of the workplace and community; (5) sufficient dosage and follow-up; (6) use of interactive teaching techniques; (7) training for prevention program providers; and (8) evaluation to know that the intervention had the desired effect on behavior. Evaluation of workplace substance abuse prevention has been limited; the need for future research is discussed. The paper concludes with a discussion of how to increase interest in substance abuse prevention by employers.",1999,,Journal of Primary Prevention,20,2,145-156,,Dusenbury 1999,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Workplace interventions for alcohol and other drug problems,"Cercarelli, R.; Allsop, S.; Midford, R.; Pidd, K.",,2009,,Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews,,2,,,Cercarelli 2009,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
HOW EMPLOYEE ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS DETERMINE SERVICE UTILIZATION - A SURVEY AND RECOMMENDATIONS,"Korr, W. S.; Ruez, J. F.",,1986,1986,Evaluation and Program Planning,9,4,367-371,WOS:A1986F165900008,Korr 1986,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Drug use trends in a nuclear power facility: data from a random screening program,"Osborn, C. E.; Sokolov, J. J.","This paper has detailed the creation, implementation and results of the new Two Strike, Random Model substance screening program at Southern California Edison's San Onofre Nuclear Generating Station. This program, the fourth in an evolutionary process beginning in 1984, shows good results after one year of operation. Although not without its difficulties, the reduction in substance screen failure rates achieved thus far provides incentive to continue the quest for a truly drug free workplace.",1990,,NIDA research monograph,100,,63-77,,Osborn 1990,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Interventions Carried Out in the Workplace for the Use of Drugs: Systematic Review,"Ferreira, Maira Leon; Sartes, Laisa Marcorela Andreoli","The drug abuse in the workplace creates consequences such as absenteeism, low productivity, increased costs for employees and employers; worsening health of the individual and workplace accidents. Objectives : Conduct a systematic review of scientific articles on interventions in the workplace for the use of drugs, published from 2002 until 2012. Method : Articles were searched six databases: Medline (PubMed), PsychINFO, Web of Science, LILACS, and SciELO PEPSIC. The descriptors varied by controlling each vocabulary database. Initially found 97 articles that were ranked Descriptions, Reviews, Measurements and Interventions. The content analysis was applied to ten articles that these were interventions in the workplace. Results : All articles of the systematic review were positive about their research objectives, but all had methodological flaws. Conclusion : We conclude that the set of evaluated studies is still insufficient scientific evidence and demand more studies that seek to investigate the validity of the interventions and their applicability in the work context...",2015,2015/03,Psicol. ciênc. prof,35,1,96-110,,Ferreira 2015,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
"Employer-Sponsored Insurance Coverage for Alcohol and Drug Abuse Treatment, 1988","Jensen, Gail A.; Morrisey, Michael A.",,1991,Winter,Inquiry,28,4,393-402,263523,Jensen 1991,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
The status of health promotion programs at the worksite--a review,"Marcotte, B.; Price, J. H.",,1983,,Health education,14,4,9-Apr,,Marcotte 1983,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Substance abuse research in an EAP treatment network: Barriers and benefits,"Grissom, Grant R.; McLellan, A. Thomas; Cosgrove, Susan; DeSimone, Ross S.; Veitch, Kimberly W.","Describes the experience of Integra, an employee assistance program (EAP) service provider, in conducting substance abuse patient–treatment 'matching' research. The research involved a 3-stage quasi-experimental design in which Integra conducted a joint study with the Center for Studies of Addiction at the University of Pennsylvania. Unanticipated problems (e.g., impact of nonclinical factors on referrals, counselor resistance, client resistance) were encountered during implementation of the research design. Attempts to overcome them, while not always successful, yielded equally unanticipated benefits, including improvements in substance abuse monitoring, development and implementation of strategies to improve EAP utilization by substance abusers, and enhancement of the assessment process. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved)",1992,,Employee Assistance Quarterly,7,4,59-75,1993-31479-001,Grissom 1992,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
"Employee views of organizational wellness and the EAP: Influence on substance use, drinking climates, and policy attitudes","Bennett, J. B.; Lehman, W. E. K.",,1997,,Employee Assistance Quarterly,13,1,55-71,,Bennett 1997,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
The law of unintended consequences can never be repealed: The hazards of random urine drug screening of anesthesia providers,"Berge, K. H.; McGlinch, B. P.",,2017,,Anesthesia and Analgesia,124,5,1397-1399,,Berge 2017,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Health Promotion at the worksite,"Brennan, A. J.",,1981,,The Journal of school health,51,1,65-66,WOS:A1981KX90900016,Brennan 1981,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Health promotion in business: Caveats for success,"Brennan, A. J. J.",,1981,Sep,Journal of Occupational Medicine,23,9,639-642,7277055,Brennan 1981,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Successfully matching employee to substance abuse treatment through non-routinized Employee Assistance Program (EAP) referral,"Brummett, Patricia O'Donnell","Non-routinized Employee Assistance Program (EAP) referral practices have been found to generate greater likelihood of success of drug treatment programs. In this study, non-routinized referral practices were measured through a nationwide survey of 115 EAP referral personnel in terms of theory, practice, decision-making, and policy. Success of drug treatment was measured by improved productivity, improved absenteeism, completion of original drug treatment, and lack of relapse (as monitored by the EAP). Ordinary least squares regression was utilized to determine that individual-oriented (non-routinized) referrals as compared to standardized (routinized) referrals resulted in greater likelihood of success of drug treatment company wide. Additionally, the use of followup support by the EAP was found to be positively and significantly related to employee drug treatment success. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved)",1999,,Employee Assistance Quarterly,15,1,20-Jan,2000-13445-001,Brummett 1999,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Employee Drug Testing as Social Control: A Typology of Normative Justifications,"Brunet, J. R.",,2002,,Review of Public Personnel Administration,22,3,193-215,,Brunet 2002,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
"Substance abuse in the workplace: epidemiology, effects, and industry response","Bush, D. M.; Autry 3rd, J. H.","The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration's National Household Survey on Drug Abuse (NHSDA) reveals self-reported information on illicit drug and alcohol use among full-time, part-time, and unemployed U.S. workers, including information on workplace policies, workers' health, productivity, absenteeism, job turnover rates, accidents, and injuries. Selected statistics from 1985, 1993, and 1999 NHSDAs are reviewed in this chapter, with focus on the effectiveness and outcomes of a comprehensive Drug-Free Workplace Program, including industry and employee response and the effects of a drug testing program.",2002,,"Occupational medicine (Philadelphia, Pa.)",17,1,"13-25, iii",,Bush 2002,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
"Monitoring, reentry, and relapse prevention for chemically dependent health care professionals","Buxton, M.","Monitoring and reentry programs for chemically dependent health care professionals are increasingly being recognized as important components of recovery efforts targeted at this population. Such monitoring and preventive programs should incorporate certain eligibility requirements, patient-monitoring program contracts, recovery maintenance activities and adjuncts, work-site assessments and reentry recommendations, random body fluid analysis, relapse management, and clear explanations of financial responsibility. Monitoring and reentry programs need to be fully integrated within the spectrum of resources available to health care professionals.",1990,,Journal of Psychoactive Drugs,22,4,447-450,,Buxton 1990,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Alcohol and drug screening of occupational drivers for preventing injury,"Cashman, C. M.; Ruotsalainen, J. H.; Greiner, B. A.; Beirne, P. V.; Verbeek, J. H.","BACKGROUND: Workforce alcohol and drug testing is commonplace but its effect in reducing occupational injuries remains unclear. OBJECTIVES: To assess the effects of alcohol and drug screening of occupational drivers (operating a motorised vehicle) in preventing injury or work-related effects such as sickness absence related to injury. SEARCH STRATEGY: We searched the following databases up to June 2007 (or up to the latest issue then available): MEDLINE, EMBASE, The Cochrane Library, Cochrane Occupational Health Field's specialised register, DARE, PsychINFO, ERIC, ETOH, CISDOC, NIOSHTIC, TRANSPORT, Zetoc, Science Citation Index and Social Science Citation index and HSELINE. We also searched reference lists, relevant websites and conducted hand searching. SELECTION CRITERIA: Randomised controlled trials (RCTs), cluster-randomised trials, controlled clinical trials, controlled before and after studies (more than three time points to be measured before and after the study) and interrupted time-series (ITS) studies that evaluated alcohol or drug screening interventions for occupational drivers (compared to another intervention or no intervention) with an outcome measured as a reduction in injury or a proxy measure thereof. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Two review authors independently extracted data and assessed study quality. We contacted authors of the included studies for further information. MAIN RESULTS: We included two interrupted time-series studies conducted in the USA. One study was conducted in five large US transportation companies (N = 115,019) that carried passengers and/or cargo. Monthly injury rates were available from 1983 to 1999. In the study company, two interventions of interest were evaluated: mandatory random drug testing and mandatory random and for-cause alcohol testing programmes. The third study focused only on mandatory random drug testing and was conducted on federal injury data that covered all truck drivers of interstate carriers.We recalculated the results from raw data provided by the study authors. Following reanalysis, we found that in one study mandatory random and for-cause alcohol testing was associated with a significant decrease in the level of injuries immediately following the intervention (-1.25 injuries/100 person years, 95% CI -2.29 to -0.21) but did not significantly affect the existing long-term downward trend (-0.28 injuries/100 person years/year, 95% CI -0.78 to 0.21).Mandatory random drug testing was significantly associated with an immediate change in injury level following the intervention (1.26 injuries/100 person years, 95% CI 0.36 to 2.16) in one study, and in the second study there was no significant effect (-1.36/injuries/100 person years, 95% CI -1.69 to 0.41). In the long term, random drug testing was associated with a significant increase in the downward trend (-0.19 injuries/100 person years/year, 95% CI -0.30 to -0.07) in one study, the other study was also associated with a significant improvement in the long-term downward trend (-0.83 fatal accidents/100 million vehicle miles/year, 95% CI -1.08 to -0.58). AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS: There is insufficient evidence to advise for or against the use of drug and alcohol testing of occupational drivers for preventing injuries as a sole, effective, long-term solution in the context of workplace culture, peer interaction and other local factors. Cluster-randomised trials are needed to better address the effects of interventions for injury prevention in this occupational setting.",2009,15-Apr,Cochrane Database Syst Rev,,2,Cd006566,19370641,Cashman 2009,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Drug Abuse Prevention in the workplace,"Cook, R. F.",,2004,,"Handbook of Drug Abuse Prevention Theory, Science and Practice",,,,,Cook 2004,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Preventing substance abuse as an integral part of worksite health promotion,"Cook, R. F.; Youngblood, A.",,1990,Oct-Dec,"Occupational medicine (Philadelphia, Pa.)",5,4,725-738,WOS:A1990EE25200006,Cook 1990,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Integrating employee assistance and wellness: Current and future core technologies of a megabrush program,"Erfurt, J. C.; Foote, A.; Heirich, M. A.",,1992,,Journal of Employee Assistance Research,1,1,31-Jan,,Erfurt 1992,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
The health educator as industrial health consultant,"Everly, G. S., Jr.; Girdano, D. A.",,1979,,Health Education,10,4,13-Nov,,Everly 1979,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
A study of substance abuse testing in patient care facilities,"Fenton Jr, J. W.; Kinard, J. L.","Drug testing, once practically ignored as a health care management strategy in curbing legal liability potential, is now the norm rather than exception. Most hospitals today conduct drug tests involving employment considerations and ""for cause"" (e.g., accidents) involving most employees but excluding physicians. Random drug testing is recommended for health care institutions to consider as a strategy designed to reduce illicit drug abuse in such facilities. This recommendation is based on the nature and sensitivity of the health care institution's mission and purpose relative to patient care and safety.",1993,,Health care management review,18,4,87-95,,FentonJr 1993,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
Evaluation of drug testing in the workplace: Study of the construction industry,"Gerber, J. K.; Yacoubian G.S,, Jr.","During the past two decades, drug testing in the workplace has gone from virtual nonexistence to widespread employer acceptance. This growth is particularly critical for the construction industry. High rates of alcohol and other drug use, coupled with the high-risk, safety-sensitive nature of the industry, have prompted the implementation of a variety of drug surveillance and prevention strategies. Despite this growing vigilance, however, no scholarly works have examined the impact of drug-related policies in the construction industry. The present study investigates the efficacy of workplace drug-testing programs in reducing injury incident rates and workers' compensation experience-rating modification factors within the construction industry. Analyses indicate that companies with drug-testing programs experienced a 51% reduction in incident rates within 2 years of implementation. Furthermore, companies that drug test their employees experienced a significant reduction in their workers' compensation experience-rating modified factors. Policy implications are discussed in light of the current findings.",2001,Nov-Dec,Journal of Construction Engineering and Management,127,6,438-444,WOS:000172315600002,Gerber 2001,Intervention not targeted at reduction in use or workplace adverse effects of illicit drugs
The 3m alcohol and other drug prevention program: description and evaluation,"Stoltzfus, J. A.; Benson, P. L.","In 1989, 3M developed a comprehensive alcohol and other drug prevention program using multiple and interactive strategies aimed at altering workplace culture and promoting employee 'ownership' of the program. The three core components of the program included a ten‐hour supervisory training program; a 2‐1/2 hour all‐employee program designed to discuss 3M policies, clarify personal alcohol‐use guidelines, and promote dialogue about appropriate responses to and responsibility for a range of alcohol and other drug issues both inside and outside the work environment; and a peer helper program. The program was piloted in 1990 and 1991 in a manufacturing plant in a small midwestern community. An evaluation study comparing change in experimental and control sites demonstrated reduced alcohol consumption, improvement in employee and supervisor prevention skills, and a decrease in incidents in which substance use negatively affected work performance. Plans are in process to refine and then replicate the program in 70 manufacturing sites over a three‐year period",1994,,Journal of primary prevention,15,2,147‐159,CN-00635205,Stoltzfus 1994,Not focused on opioids or related drugs of addiction 
EVALUATION OF AN EMPLOYEE ASSISTANCE PROGRAM,"Nadolski, J. N.; Sandonato, C. E.","The objective of the EAP effectiveness study was to determine the effectiveness of the EAP counseling services. The results demonstrate that employees who received help from the company's EAP subsequently improved their work performance. Although these results cannot be generalized to other EAPs, the results are encouraging and point toward a need for more research in this area.",1987,Jan,Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine,29,1,32-37,WOS:A1987F570100003,Nadolski 1987,Not focused on opioids or related drugs of addiction 
Off-duty deviance: Organizational policies and evidence for two prevention strategies,"Lyons, B. D.; Hoffman, B. J.; Bommer, W. H.; Kennedy, C. L.; Hetrick, A. L.","Anecdotal evidence suggests that organizations are increasingly concerned with employee off-duty deviance (ODD), yet management research has rarely investigated this type of deviant behavior. We define ODD as behaviors committed outside the workplace or when off-duty that are deviant by organizational and/or societal standards, jeopardize the employee's status within the organization, and threaten the interests and well-being of the organization and its stakeholders. Three studies are presented to better understand the relevance of ODD to modern organizations and then to understand potential approaches to reduce the incidence of ODD. The first study provides a qualitative review of publicly available ODD policies within the Fortune 500; the results showed that 13.4% of the Fortune 500 had a publicly available ODD policy, with the majority prohibiting criminal forms of ODD to protect the firm's reputation. The next 2 studies examine the efficacy of different approaches to reduce criminal ODD: policy adoption and personnel selection. In the second study, a longitudinal, quasi-experimental design showed a significant-albeit modest-reduction in criminal ODD following the adoption of a conduct policy. In the third and final study, a criterion-related validity design supported the predictive validity of general mental ability and prior deviance in predicting criminal ODD. This compendium of studies provides an initial empirical investigation into ODD and offers implications relevant to the deviance literature, policy development, and personnel selection.",2016,Apr,J Appl Psychol,101,4,463-83,26595759,Lyons 2016,Not focused on opioids or related drugs of addiction 
Worksite health promotion with campus maintenance workers,"Peters, Kathleen Kim; Carlson, John G.","A comprehensive worksite health promotion program was conducted with campus maintenance workers to determine whether participation would improve health status, change health related attitudes and beliefs, instigate healthy behavior changes, and improve work productivity and morale among an ethnically diverse blue-collar workforce. Fifty subjects were quasi-randomly assigned to either a treatment (n = 24) or wait-list control group (n = 26). The study consisted of an initial assessment including a health risk appraisal, sixteen educational workshops over a period of 10 weeks, and a three month follow-up. Written and verbal information were provided regarding the following risk behaviors: unmanaged stress, cigarette smoking, alcohol/substance abuse, lack of exercise, insomnia, unsafe working practices, poor dietary habits, and uncontrolled hypertension/cardiovascular disease. Sessions also focused on training individuals in the process and application of behavioral self-modification techniques. In addition, the program focused on teaching various methods of managing stress and coping with stressful situations through various relaxation exercises and cognitive techniques. Results confirmed a number of research hypotheses predicting positive outcomes on a variety of measures related to health including physical indices, self-control, emotional, and attitudinal measures, perceived external factors, and healthy behaviors. The Wellness Behavior Interaction Model was used as a theoretical framework for investigating these variables. Results showed that Intention to Change was the most powerful variable in predicting healthy behavior changes at post-treatment. Theoretical and clinical implications are discussed.",1997,1997,,,9733626,262,304347718,Peters 1997,Not focused on opioids or related drugs of addiction 
"Quantifiable impact of the contract for health and wellness: Health behaviors, health care costs, disability, and workers' compensation","Stave, G. M.; Muchmore, L.; Gardner, H.","Current literature about the long-term impacts of corporate health and wellness programs has brought to light new evidence about the cost savings associated with health-promotion interventions. A critical element in these initiatives is attracting the participation of employees at risk for high benefits use. This study presents evidence that suggests accomplishing this task has economic savings implications to large employers. A health and wellness intervention program offered at GlaxoSmithKline, entitled the Contract for Health and Wellness, is examined. Focusing on a group of 6049 employees, the study examines the impact on health behaviors and on integrated health benefits use of this continuously employed population from 1996 to 2000. Total benefits costs are examined for participants and nonparticipants, and the annual savings associated with the isolated impact of the program are, on average, $613 per participant. Reductions in disability costs accounted for the majority of these savings.",2003,Feb,Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine,45,2,109-117,12625226,Stave 2003,Not focused on opioids or related drugs of addiction 
Long-term return on investment of an employee health enhancement program at a Midwest utility company from 1999 to 2007,"Yen, L.; Schultz, A. B.; Schaefer, C.; Bloomberg, S.; Edington, D. W.",,2010,,International Journal of Workplace Health Management,3,2,79-96,,Yen 2010,Not focused on opioids or related drugs of addiction 
The impact of increasing intensity of health promotion intervention on risk reduction,"Shi, L.","The HealthWise Stepped Intervention Study (1988-1990) at Pacific Gas and Electric was conducted to evaluate how a health promotion program affects behavior change and whether increasing levels of preventive interventions improve health status. The basic intervention components consisted of health risk assessment and health newsletter (Levels 1, 2, 3, and 4). Additional interventions were health resource center and self-care books (Levels 2, 3, and 4), behavioral change workshops and Division Healthwise team (Levels 3 and 4), and case management and environmental policy (Level 4). The study employed a quasi-experimental design with nonequivalent control groups. The overall risk status has significantly improved at all four intervention levels. The comparison across the four intervention levels found that Level 4, combining environmental policy with 'high risk' targeting, showed the most impressive performance. Participants in Level 4 consistently showed significantly greater improvement in life-style factors, and their overall risk status also showed the greatest improvement.",1992,,Evaluation and the Health Professions,15,1,25-Mar,,Shi 1992,Not focused on opioids or related drugs of addiction 
New horizons in organizational stress prevention approaches,"McGaffey, T. N.",,1978,Nov,The Personnel administrator,23,11,26-32,10238892,McGaffey 1978,Not focused on opioids or related drugs of addiction 
Efficacy of the Fun For Wellness Online Intervention to Promote Multidimensional Well-Being: a Randomized Controlled Trial,"Myers, N. D.; Prilleltensky, I.; Prilleltensky, O.; McMahon, A.; Dietz, S.; Rubenstein, C. L.","Subjective well-being refers to people's level of satisfaction with life as a whole and with multiple dimensions within it. Interventions that promote subjective well-being are important because there is evidence that physical health, mental health, substance use, and health care costs may be related to subjective well-being. Fun For Wellness (FFW) is a new online universal intervention designed to promote growth in multiple dimensions of subjective well-being. The purpose of this study was to provide an initial evaluation of the efficacy of FFW to increase subjective well-being in multiple dimensions in a universal sample. The study design was a prospective, double-blind, parallel group randomized controlled trial. Data were collected at baseline and 30 and 60 days-post baseline. A total of 479 adult employees at a major university in the southeast of the USA were enrolled. Recruitment, eligibility verification, and data collection were conducted online. Measures of interpersonal, community, occupational, physical, psychological, economic (i.e., I COPPE), and overall subjective well-being were constructed based on responses to the I COPPE Scale. A two-class linear regression model with complier average causal effect estimation was imposed for each dimension of subjective well-being. Participants who complied with the FFW intervention had significantly higher subjective well-being, as compared to potential compliers in the Usual Care group, in the following dimensions: interpersonal at 60 days, community at 30 and 60 days, psychological at 60 days, and economic at 30 and 60 days. Results from this study provide some initial evidence for both the efficacy of, and possible revisions to, the FFW intervention.",2017,Nov,Prev Sci,18,8,984-994,28303422,Myers 2017,Not focused on opioids or related drugs of addiction 
"The impact of the Citibank, NA, Health Management Program on changes in employee health risks over time","Ozminkowski, R. J.; Goetzel, R. Z.; Smith, M. W.; Cantor, R. I.; Shaughnessy, A.; Harrison, M.","This study estimated the impact of the Citibank Health Management Program on changes in health risks among Citibank employees. McNemar chi-squared tests compared the probability of being at high risk for poor health when the first and last health-risk appraisal surveys were taken. Logistic regression controlled for baseline differences in subsequent analyses when those who participated in more intensive program features were compared with those who participated in less intensive features. Declines in risk were noted for 8 of 10 risk categories. Most changes were small, except those related to exercise habits, seatbelt use, and stress levels. For nine health risk categories, those who participated in more intensive program services were significantly more likely than others to reduce their health risks. Thus, the Citibank Health Management Program was associated with significant reductions in health risk.",2000,May,Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine,42,5,502-511,10824303,Ozminkowski 2000,Not focused on opioids or related drugs of addiction 
Stress management in occupational settings,"Schwartz, G. E.",,1980,Mar-Apr,Public Health Reports,95,2,99-108,6767264,Schwartz 1980,Not focused on opioids or related drugs of addiction 
Substanceabuse prevention in the workplace: Recent findings and an expanded conceptual model,"Cook, Royer F.; Back, Anita; Trudeau, James","The majority of heavy drinkers and users of illicit drugs are employed adults, yet there is a dearth of sophisticated substance abuse prevention efforts in the workplace. This article reviews the approaches to worksite-based substance abuse prevention and presents the results of a field test of a prevention program aimed at the individual worker. 289 manufacturing facility employees participated in the program, with staggered implementation to provide control data. The program achieved positive effects on health attitudes and motivation and on desire to cut down on drinking. Improvements in health efficacy were also noted. Findings contributed to development of an expanded conceptual model for workplace substance abuse prevention. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)",1996,Spr 1996,The Journal of Primary Prevention,16,3,319-339,1996-03582-006,Cook 1996,Not focused on opioids or related drugs of addiction 
How does risk sharing between employers and a managed behavioral health organization affect mental health care?,"Sturm, R.","OBJECTIVE: To study the ways in which allocating the risk for behavioral health care expenses between employers and a managed behavioral health organization affects costs and the use of services. DATA SOURCES: Claims from 87 plans that cover mental health and substance abuse services covering over one million member years in 1996/1997. STUDY DESIGN: Multi-part regression models for health care cost are used. Dependent variables are health care costs decomposed into access to any care, costs per user, any inpatient use, costs per outpatient user, and costs per inpatient user. The study compares full-risk plans, in which the managed care organization provides managed care services and acts as the insurer by assuming the risk for claims costs, with contracts in which the managed care organization only manages care (for a fixed administrative fee) and the employer retains the risk for claims. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: Full-risk plans are not statistically significantly different from non-risk plans in terms of any mental health specialty use or hospitalization rates, but costs per user are significantly lower, in particular for inpatients. CONCLUSIONS: Risk contracts do not affect initial access to mental health specialty care or hospitalization rates, but patients in risk contracts have lower costs, either because of lower intensity of care or because they are treated by less expensive providers.",2000,Oct,Health Serv Res,35,4,761-76,11055447,Sturm 2000,Not focused on opioids or related drugs of addiction 
Impact of visit copayments on outpatient mental health utilization by members of a health maintenance organization,"Simon, G. E.; Grothaus, L.; Durham, M. L.; VonKorff, M.; Pabiniak, C.","OBJECTIVE: The authors examined the impact of increasing cost sharing on use of outpatient mental health services. METHOD: A quasi-experimental design was used to study outpatient utilization by members of a health maintenance organization (HMO) who were subject to increasing copayments for mental health visits (state government employees and dependents). Their outpatient mental health utilization was compared with that of similar HMO members who were not subject to cost sharing (federal government employees and dependents). Analyses compared both likelihood of any service use and number of visits per year among service users. RESULTS: Institution of $20/visit copayments was associated with a 16% decrease in likelihood of service use but no change in visit rate among service users. A subsequent copayment increase to $30/visit resulted in no significant change in likelihood of use but was associated with a 9% decrease in visits per year among those using services. The impact of the first copayment change on likelihood of using services did not vary according to level of clinical need (as measured by prior service use and psychotropic drug use). CONCLUSIONS: In this staff-model HMO, modest visit copayments significantly reduced initial access to mental health treatment and had a smaller effect on treatment intensity. Copayments restricted access regardless of clinical need. Designers of mental health benefits must consider the impact of copayments on those with the greatest need for treatment.",1996,Mar,Am J Psychiatry,153,3,331-8,8610819,Simon 1996,Not focused on opioids or related drugs of addiction 
Investigating the disposition of employee assistance program referrals in the treatment of members and dependents. Demographics and cost concerns,"Minster, Doreen Ann; Stone, Mark","The primary purpose of this study was to examine the demographics of employees and their dependents seeking mental health services through an employee assistance program. The second goal of this investigation was to examine whether those families treated through an employee assistance program would have lower medical costs after six years, than a comparison sample that did not receive employee assistance benefits. The study was a retrospective analysis of archival data for patients seeking treatment for mental health and/or addiction problems. The 939 subjects span all age groups and were given an initial assessment between October 1992 through June 1999. The demographics were analyzed using frequency distributions and regression methods. The untreated sample and treated population total medical costs were compiled for seven years and compared using a trend analysis. The results indicated the following partial associations: (a) there was a high incidence of relationship difficulties reported for those seeking mental health services, (b) the prevalence of problems associated with abusing alcohol follow mental health concerns, (c) the need for alcohol abuse treatment is greater among males, (d) the peak age range for relationship concerns is young adulthood, (e) mood disorders continue to remain a problem and are seen in higher numbers around fifty years of age, (f) Non-alcohol substance abuse is more prevalent among teenagers, (g) addressing the mental health needs of individuals may reduce total family medical costs when measured over a period of several years. Based on the findings in this study, age and/or gender appear to influence the frequency distributions found for alcohol abuse, substance abuse, problems, and diagnoses. Additionally, providing mental health treatment to individuals and their dependents lowered the total family medical yearly costs when measured over a period of several years. It is hoped that continued research efforts will advocate for patients in need of mental health benefits. There remains a need for objective outcome studies. Further, to gain the attention of managed care companies researchers must demonstrate that cost benefits are realized in providing treatment.",2000,2000,,,9968182,107,304676626,Minster 2000,Not focused on opioids or related drugs of addiction 
The SHIELD (Safety & Health Improvement: Enhancing Law Enforcement Departments) Study: Mixed Methods Longitudinal Findings,"Kuehl, K. S.; Elliot, D. L.; MacKinnon, D. P.; O'Rourke, H. P.; DeFrancesco, C.; Miocevic, M.; Valente, M.; Sleigh, A.; Garg, B.; McGinnis, W.; Kuehl, H.","The SHIELD (Safety & Health Improvement: Enhancing Law Enforcement Departments) Study is a worksite wellness team-based intervention among police and sheriff departments assessing the program's effectiveness to reduce occupational risks and unhealthy lifestyle behaviors. The SHIELD program focused on improving diet, physical activity, body weight and sleep, and reducing the effects of unhealthy stress and behaviors, such as tobacco and substance abuse. The SHIELD team-based health promotion program was found to be feasible and effective at 6 months in improving diet, sleep, stress, and overall quality of life of law enforcement department personnel. Both intervention and control groups were followed for 24 months, and we report those durability findings, along with qualitative group interview results that provide insight into the changes of the long-term outcomes. Long-term effects were observed for consumption of fruits and vegetables, and there was some evidence for effects on tobacco and alcohol use. Assessment of dietary habits, physical activity behaviors, weight loss maintenance, and substance use is rare more than 1 year following an intervention, and in general, initial positive changes do not persist in prior research. The SHIELD program was feasible, effective, and durable for improving dietary changes.",2016,May,J Occup Environ Med,58,5,492-8,27158956,Kuehl 2016,Not focused on opioids or related drugs of addiction 
Brief intervention strategies,"Heather, N.",,1989,,Handbook of Alcoholism Treatment Approaches: Effective Alternatives,,,93-116,,Heather 1989,Not focused on opioids or related drugs of addiction 
Workplace health promotion and utilization of health services: follow-up data findings 839,"Deitz, D.; Cook, R.; Hersch, R.","This article reports findings from a workplace substance abuse prevention program designed to investigate best practices. The study sought to assess the effects of the worksite wellness program and employee assistance program (EAP) on healthcare utilization and costs, identify predictors of outpatient costs and visits, and assess the effect of the intervention on health attitudes, behaviors, and behavioral health‐related costs and visits. Results indicated that visits to the EAP increased as did overall healthcare visits, that utilization of healthcare services and costs were higher in the population receiving substance abuse prevention intervention, and that employees in the substance abuse prevention intervention reported lower heavy drinking and binge drinking. Data suggest that substance abuse prevention may result in higher healthcare costs and utilization in the short term, but a reduction in health risk behaviors such as heavy drinking may result in lower healthcare costs and utilization in the long term",2005,,Journal of behavioral health services & research,32,3,306‐319,CN-00692121,Deitz 2005,Not focused on opioids or related drugs of addiction 
The effect of Employee Assistance Programs use on healthcare utilization,"Zarkin, G. A.; Bray, J. W.; Qi, J.","OBJECTIVE: To estimate the effect of Employee Assistance Program (EAP) use on healthcare utilization as measured by health claims. DATA SOURCES: A unique data set that combines individual-level information on EAP utilization, demographic information, and health insurance claims from 1991 to 1995 for all employees of a large midwestern employer. STUDY DESIGN: Using ""fixed-effect"" econometric models that control for unobserved differences between individuals' propensities to use healthcare resources and the EAP, we perform our analyses in two steps. First, for those employees who visited the EAP, we test whether post-EAP claims differ from pre-EAP claims. Second, we combine claims data of individuals who went to an EAP with those of individuals who did not use an EAP to test whether differences in utilization exist between EAP users and nonusers. DATA COLLECTION METHODS: From the EAP we obtained the date of first EAP contact for all employees who used the service, and from the company's human resources department we obtained limited demographic data on all employees. We obtained healthcare utilization claims data on all employees and their dependents from the company's two healthcare plans: a fee-for-service (FFS) plan and a health maintenance organization (HMO) plan. PRINCIPAL FINDINGS: We found that going to an EAP substantially increases both the probability of an alcohol, drug abuse, or mental health (ADM) claim and the number of ADM claims in the same quarter as EAP contact. The increased probability of an ADM claim persists for approximately 11 quarters after the initial contact, while the increased ADM charges persist for approximately six quarters after the initial EAP contact. CONCLUSIONS: Our results strongly suggest that the EAP is able to identify behavioral and other health problems that may affect workplace performance and prompt EAP users to access ADM and other healthcare. Consistent with the stated goals of many EAPs, including the one examined in this study, this process should improve individuals' health, family functioning, and workplace performance.",2000,Apr,Health Serv Res,35,1 Pt 1,77-100,10778825,Zarkin 2000,Not focused on opioids or related drugs of addiction 
A study of Mind's resilience intervention for emergency service workers,"Isrctn,","INTERVENTION: The study is a multi‐centre randomized controlled trial in which emergency service workers are being randomly allocated to receive Mind’s 6‐week resilience group or a control intervention. The interventions will be delivered to 430 participants; 317 will receive the group intervention and 113 will receive the control intervention. Mind’s 6‐week group intervention aims to improve resilience and linked mental health outcomes in emergency service workers, a population at risk of depression, post‐traumatic stress, poor health, sickness absence and early retirement. The control intervention consists of reading material about mental health and wellbeing that Mind already has available as topics on their website. Participants will complete a number of measures assessing resilience, well being, self‐efficacy, psychological coping strategies, post‐traumatic stress, alcohol use and depression at baseline before the intervention begins, at post‐intervention and and at 3 month follow‐up. CONDITION: Resilience and linked mental health outcomes in emergency service workers ; Mental and Behavioural Disorders PRIMARY OUTCOME: All measures are self‐report questionnaires. ; ; Baseline and Outcome Measures; We are administering the following outcome measures at pre‐intervention, post‐intervention and at 3 month follow‐up:; ; 1. Wellbeing: Warwick Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing scale (Tennant et al., 2007). The Warwick‐Edinburgh Mental Wellbeing Scale (WEMWBS), developed by Warwick and Edinburgh Universities, is a scale of 14 positively worded items with five response categories for assessing mental wellbeing. ; 2. Resilience: Connor‐Davidson Resilience Scale (CD‐RISC; Connor & Davidson, 2003): This is a 25‐item questionnaire. Each item carries a 5‐point range of responses from ‘not true at all’ to ‘true nearly all of the time’. The total score ranges from 0‐100 and provides a measure of resilience. The higher the score, the greater the resilience. ; 3. Self‐efficacy: Schwarzer‐Jerusalem General Self‐Efficacy Scale (Schwarzer & Jerusalem,1995). The General Self‐Efficacy Scale is a 10‐item psychometric scale that is designed to assess optimistic self‐beliefs to cope with a variety of difficult demands in life. In contrast to other scales that have been designed to assess optimism, this one explicitly refers to personal agency, i.e., the belief that one's actions are responsible for successful outcomes. ; 4. Ability to Problem‐Solve and Achieve Goals. This is an unpublished questionnaire used in previous evaluations of Mind’s resilience intervention, which consists of 8 items to assess a person’s perception of how well they feel they can solve problems and achieve goals. It also taps self‐efficacy.; 5. Social Capital. Social Participation (Alden & Taylor, 2011). This is a 13‐item questionnaire that assesses an individual’s social participation. Example items include: In the past month, did you: ‘Share your opinions and ideas with others?’, ‘Talk about meaningful personal experiences with others?’, ‘Attend work‐or school‐related social events?’. Participants rate how often they have actively participated in such activities in the last month on a 7‐point scale ranging from 1=Not at all to 7=Often.; 6. Social Support (Adapted version of Sarason et al., 1987): This questionnaire has 13 items, which assess perceived support from and closeness to friends, family and work colleagues. This questionnaire taps the sense of belonging and use of social support linked to social capital. Items include ‘Whenever you want to talk how often is there someone willing to listen?’ ‘Do you feel a sense of comradeship (or closeness) between yourself and people you work with?’ Responses are rated on a 7‐point scale from 1=Never to 7=Always.; 7. Psychological Coping Styles. Confidence in managing mental health and resilience (unpublished). This is a short questionnaire designed specifically for this study in which participants rate the degree to which hey feel confidence in managing their mental health and improving their resilience. ; ; We are administering the following outcome measure at pre‐intervention and at follow‐up only:; 1. Days off work (unpublished). This is a brief questionnaire which asks how many days off work an individual has had in the past three months due to illness and how many days off due to stress. SECONDARY OUTCOME: The secondary outcome measures are self‐report and are being administered at baseline, at post‐intervention and at 3 month follow‐up.; ; 1. Attributions Questionnaire (Kleim et al., 2008): This questionnaire assesses attributions of negative events. The scale has 11 items that measure negative stable attributions (e.g., ‘When bad things happened to me, I was sure it would happen again’), negative internal attributions (e.g.,’ When bad things happened, I thought it was my fault’), and negative global attributions (e.g., ‘When bad things happened to me, I couldn’t see anything positive in my life’) and helplessness (e.g., ‘When things did not go well, I got easily discouraged’). We would expect the resilience intervention to lead to changes in attributions. High scores on this questionnaire at baseline may also influence the degree of change participants experience in well‐being, resilience and social capital as a result of the resilience intervention.; 2. Coping Behaviour Questionnaire (short version, Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub, 1989): This questionnaire is a shorter version of the well‐known COPE questionnaire and assesses coping behaviour. It consists of 17 items. Participants rate what they do in very stressful situations, such as ‘I concentrate my efforts on doing something about the situation I am in’ on a scale of 1=Not at all to 4=A lot. The questionnaire taps 7 factors linked to coping: self‐distraction, active coping, denial, substance use, self‐blame, behavioural disengagement and acceptance. ; 3. The Responses to Intrusions Questionnaire (RIQ; Clohessy & Ehlers, 1999): Intrusive memories are commonly experienced by emergency service personnel both by frontline and office‐based staff. The RIQ measures responses to intrusive memories, such as negative interpretations, rumination, dissociation, and suppression. Clohessy et al. (1999) found that particular strategies in response to intrusive memories were linked to mental ill‐health in a study of ambulance workers. We will assess whether the resilience intervention leads to greater use of more adaptive responses to intrusive memories.; 4. Ruminative Responses Scale (Treyner et al., 2003). This 22‐item questionnaire measures rumination in daily life.; ; Clinical Measures; The following screening measures will be assessed at pre‐intervention, post‐intervention and at 3 month follow‐up.; 1. Trauma Screener (unpublished): This is a 19‐item questionnaire looking at exposure to previous trauma relevant to the emergency services and includes items from the Clinician Administered PTSD Scale (CAPS, Blake et al., 1998). ; 2. Post‐traumatic Stress Disorder Checklist (PCL; Weathers et al., 2013): The PCL‐5 consists of 20 items that parallel the diagnostic criteria for PTSD set out in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition (DSM‐V; American Psychiatric Association, 2013). ; 3. Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ‐9; Kroenke et al., 2001): This is a well validated 9‐item measure to assess symptoms of depression.; 4. General Anxiety Disorder Scale (Spitzer et al., 2006). This is a 7‐item well validated measure of anxiety. High scores are suggestive of an anxiety problem.; 5. The Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (Babor et al., 2011): This short questionnaire was developed by the World Health Organisation to measure a person’s weekly intake of alcohol and substances. It also assesses whether a person’s use of alcohol or street drugs has caused problems for them.; ; The following questionnaire is only being administered at baseline:; 1. Eysenck Personality Questionnaire, Neuroticisim Su scale (EPQ; Eysenck & Eysenck, 1975). The neuroticism subscale has 24 items, which assess emotionality, and may predict the degree of change participants experience in wellbeing, resilience, self‐efficacy and social capital as a result of the resilience intervention. INCLUSION CRITERIA: Employed or volunteering as front‐line or office‐based staff in one of the following emergency services: police, fire and rescue, ambulance and search and rescue",2016,,Http://www.who.int/trialsearch/trial2.aspx? Trialid=isrctn79407277,,,,CN-01819145,Isrctn 2016,Not focused on opioids or related drugs of addiction 
The impact of the highmark employee wellness programs on 4-year healthcare costs,"Naydeck, B. L.; Pearson, J. A.; Ozminkowski, R. J.; Day, B. T.; Goetzel, R. Z.","OBJECTIVE: To determine the return on investment (ROI) of Highmark Inc.'s employee wellness programs. METHODS: Growth curve analyses compared medical claims for participants of wellness programs versus risk-matched nonparticipants for years 2001 to 2005. The difference was used to define savings. ROI was determined by subtracting program costs from savings and alternative discount rates were applied in a sensitivity analysis. RESULTS: Multivariate models estimated health care expenses per person per year as $176 lower for participants. Inpatient expenses were lower by $182. Four-year savings of $1,335,524 compared with program expenses of $808,403 yielded an ROI of $1.65 for every dollar spent on the program. CONCLUSIONS: Using sophisticated methodology, this study suggests that a comprehensive health promotion program can lower the rate of health care cost increases and produce a positive ROI.",2008,Feb,Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine,50,2,146-156,18301171,Naydeck 2008,Not focused on opioids or related drugs of addiction 
"Synergy, influence, and information in the adoption of administrative innovations","Fennell, M. L.","The adoption processes of two related administrative innovations in the private sector dealing with employee health are examined. Results of multiple logistic regressions using survey data on a sample of Illinois firms suggest that these two innovations are synergistically linked, such that the adoption of one increases the likelihood of the subsequent adoption of the other.",1984,Mar,Acad Manage J,27,1,113-29,10265647,Fennell 1984,Not focused on opioids or related drugs of addiction 
Workplace wellness programs can generate savings,"Baicker, K.; Cutler, D.; Song, Z.","Amid soaring health spending, there is growing interest in workplace disease prevention and wellness programs to improve health and lower costs. In a critical meta-analysis of the literature on costs and savings associated with such programs, we found that medical costs fall by about $3.27 for every dollar spent on wellness programs and that absenteeism costs fall by about $2.73 for every dollar spent. Although further exploration of the mechanisms at work and broader applicability of the findings is needed, this return on investment suggests that the wider adoption of such programs could prove beneficial for budgets and productivity as well as health outcomes.",2010,Feb,Health Affairs,29,2,304-11,20075081,Baicker 2010,Not focused on opioids or related drugs of addiction 
Influence of a mobile worksite health promotion program on health care costs,"Aldana, S. G.; Jacobson, B. H.; Harris, C. J.; Kelley, P. L.; Stone, W. J.","The continued rising cost of health care has prompted some business to invest in mobile worksite health promotion programs, which screen employees for health risk and pursue risk reduction through counseling, health education, and referral to medical treatment. The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of a mobile worksite health promotion program on health care costs. We conducted a five-year retrospective study on 1,325 city employees insured by the City of Mesa, Arizona. Of these, 340 had participated in the CIGNA Health-plan mobile worksite health promotion program for two years. The participants were age-matched and sex-matched with 340 control subjects who were also employed and insured by the city. We analyzed participant and control group health care costs for two years before and two years after program initiation. Repeated measures analysis of variance (2 x 2 MANOVA) indicated a significant decrease in health care costs in both groups (P < .0063). The control group had a 7% decrease, while the participant group decreased 16%. Further analysis showed specific reductions in general sickness, outpatient and inpatient claims, and total claims use. Costs for substance abuse/psychological treatment and for emergency care did not decrease. Benefit-to-cost ratio for the entire program resulted in a $3.6 savings for every dollar spent. Mobile worksite health promotion programs can be effective in reducing employee health care expenditures among both program participants and nonparticipants.",1993,Nov-Dec,Am J Prev Med,9,6,378-83,8311988,Aldana 1993,Not focused on opioids or related drugs of addiction 
Workplace substance abuse prevention and help seeking: comparing team-oriented and informational training,"Bennett, J. B.; Lehman, W. E.","Employees fail to seek help for alcohol or drug (AOD) abuse because of unhealthy work climates, stigma, and distrust in Employee Assistance Programs (EAPs). To address such problems, the authors randomly assigned groups of municipal employees (N = 260) to 2 types of training: a 4-hr informational review of EAPs and policy and an 8-hr training that embedded messages about AOD reduction in the context of team building and stress management. Pre- and posttraining and 6-month follow-up surveys assessed change. Group privacy regulation, EAP trust, help seeking, and peer encouragement increased for team training. Stigma of substance users decreased for information training. EAP/policy knowledge increased for both groups. A control group showed little change. Help seeking and peer encouragement also predicted EAP utilization. Integrating both team and informational training may be the most effective for improving help seeking and EAP utilization.",2001,Jul,J Occup Health Psychol,6,3,243-54,11482635,Bennett 2001,Not focused on opioids or related drugs of addiction 
Supervisor tolerance-responsiveness to substance abuse and workplace prevention training: use of a cognitive mapping tool,"Bennett, J. B.; Lehman, W. E.","Supervisor tolerance-responsiveness, referring to the attitudes and behaviors associated with either ignoring or taking proactive steps with troubled employees, was investigated in two studies. The studies were conducted to help examine, understand and improve supervisor responsiveness to employee substance abuse. Study 1 examined supervisor response to and tolerance of coworker substance use and ways of interfacing with the Employee Assistance Program (EAP) in two workplaces (n = 244 and 107). These surveys suggested that engaging supervisors in a dialogue about tolerance might improve their willingness to use the EAP. Study 2 was a randomized control field experiment that assessed a team-oriented training. This training adopted a cognitive mapping technique to help improve supervisor responsiveness. Supervisors receiving this training (n = 29) were more likely to improve on several dimensions of responsiveness (e.g. likely to contact the EAP) than were supervisors who received a more didactic, informational training (n = 23) or a no-training control group (n = 17). Trained supervisors also showed increases in their own help-seeking behavior. Procedures and maps from the mapping activity (two-stage conversational mapping) are described. Overall, results indicate that while supervisor tolerance of coworker substance use inhibits EAP utilization, it may be possible to address this tolerance using team-oriented prevention training in the work-site.",2002,Feb,Health Educ Res,17,1,27-42,11890175,Bennett 2002,Not focused on opioids or related drugs of addiction 
A web-based approach to managing stress and mood disorders in the workforce,"Billings, D. W.; Cook, R. F.; Hendrickson, A.; Dove, D. C.","OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the effectiveness of a web-based multimedia health promotion program for the workplace, designed to help reduce stress and to prevent depression, anxiety, and substance abuse. METHODS: Using a randomized controlled trial design, 309 working adults were randomly assigned to the web-based condition or to a wait-list control condition. All participants were assessed on multiple self-reported outcomes at pretest and posttest. RESULTS: Relative to controls, the web-based group reduced their stress, increased their knowledge of depression and anxiety, developed more positive attitudes toward treatment, and adopted a more healthy approach to alcohol consumption. CONCLUSIONS: We found that a brief and easily adaptable web-based stress management program can simultaneously reduce worker stress and address stigmatized behavioral health problems by embedding this prevention material into a more positive stress management framework.",2008,Aug,J Occup Environ Med,50,8,960-8,18695455,Billings 2008,Not focused on opioids or related drugs of addiction 
Workplace health promotion and utilization of health services: follow-up data findings,"Deitz, D.; Cook, R.; Hersch, R.","This article reports findings from a workplace substance abuse prevention program designed to investigate best practices. The study sought to assess the effects of the worksite wellness program and employee assistance program (EAP) on healthcare utilization and costs, identify predictors of outpatient costs and visits, and assess the effect of the intervention on health attitudes, behaviors, and behavioral health-related costs and visits. Results indicated that visits to the EAP increased as did overall healthcare visits, that utilization of healthcare services and costs were higher in the population receiving substance abuse prevention intervention, and that employees in the substance abuse prevention intervention reported lower heavy drinking and binge drinking. Data suggest that substance abuse prevention may result in higher healthcare costs and utilization in the short term, but a reduction in health risk behaviors such as heavy drinking may result in lower healthcare costs and utilization in the long term.",2005,Jul-Sep,J Behav Health Serv Res,32,3,306-19,16010186,Deitz 2005,Not focused on opioids or related drugs of addiction 
An evaluation of preemployment drug testing,"Normand, J.; Salyards, S. D.; Mahoney, J. J.","As part of a blind longitudinal study, 5,465 job applicants were tested for use of illicit drugs, and the relationships between these drug-test results and absenteeism, turnover, injuries, and accidents on the job were evaluated. After an average 1.3 years of employment, employees who had tested positive for illicit drugs had an absenteeism rate 59.3% higher than employees who had tested negative (6.63% vs. 4.16% of scheduled work hours, respectively). Employees who had tested positive also had a 47% higher rate of involuntary turnover than employees who had tested negative (15.41% vs. 10.51%, respectively). No significant associations were detected between drug-test results and measures of injury and accident occurrence. The practical implications of these results, in terms of economic utility and prediction errors, are discussed.",1990,Dec,J Appl Psychol,75,6,629-39,2286599,Normand 1990,Not workplace based
Worker drug use and workplace drug-testing programs: Results from the 1994 national household survey on drug abuse,"Hoffman, J. P.; Larison, C. L.",,1999,,Contemporary Drug Problems,26,2,331-354,,Hoffman 1999,Not workplace based
Predictors of overall and on-the-job substance use among young workers,"Frone, M. R.","Predictors of overall and on-the-job substance (alcohol and marijuana) use were studied in a sample of young workers. The 18 predictors represent 6 general domains of risk factors: demographic, personality, substance use outcome expectancies, workplace substance availability, workplace social control, and work stressors. Data were obtained from a sample of 319 individuals ages 16 to 19. Hierarchical tobit regression analyses revealed that 5 of the 6 domains of risk factors were related to employee substance use. Similarities and differences were found in the predictors of overall and on-the-job substance use and in the predictors of alcohol and marijuana use.",2003,Jan,J Occup Health Psychol,8,1,39-54,12553528,Frone 2003,Not workplace based
Economic benefit of chemical dependency treatment to employers,"Jordan, N.; Grissom, G.; Alonzo, G.; Dietzen, L.; Sangsland, S.","Using assessment data from the Substance Abuse Treatment Support System, we estimated the economic benefit of chemical dependency treatment to employers. A cohort of individuals (N = 498) treated at Kaiser Permanente's Addiction Medicine programs in Southern California completed assessments before and at least 30 days after treatment began. Compared to intake, subsequent assessments indicated substantial reduction in the number of patients who missed work, were late for work, were less productive than usual at work, and/or had conflict with coworkers or management. The net economic value of these improvements to their employers depended upon the utilization rate of the benefit and the salary level of the employees receiving treatment. For a utilization rate of 0.9% and a mean annual salary of US$45,000, the net benefit of treatment was US$1,538 for > or = 61 days of treatment. Based solely upon these employment-related measures, without factoring in the medical cost offset or indirect benefits of treatment that may help employees to maintain higher levels of productivity, employers break even on an investment of US$30 per member per year for a chemical dependency treatment benefit if the mean annual salary of the employees participating in treatment is US$36,565.",2008,Apr,J Subst Abuse Treat,34,3,311-9,17614238,Jordan 2008,Not workplace based
The use of a credible drug testing program for accountability and intervention,"Torres, S.",,1996,Dec,Federal Probation,60,4,18-23,WOS:A1996WV73000004,Torres 1996,Not workplace based
A follow-up study of narcotic addicts in the NARA program,"Langenauer, B. J.; Bowden, C. L.",,1971,Jul,Am J Psychiatry,128,1,41-6,4345517,Langenauer 1971,Not workplace based
"Maintenance treatment of narcotic addicts (not British nor a system, but working now)","Bewley, T. H.; James, I. P.; Le Fevre, C.; Maddocks, P.; Mahon, T.",,1972,,Int J Addict,7,4,597-611,4659587,Bewley 1972,Not workplace based
Effects of EAP follow-up on prevention of relapse among substance abuse clients,"Foote, A.; Erfurt, J. C.","Clients entering an employee assistance program (EAP) of a large manufacturing plant in 1985 who were assessed as having an alcohol or drug abuse problem (N = 325) were randomized into an experimental ""special follow-up"" group and a control ""regular care"" group. The regular care group received follow-up only as needed (following the usual practice of the EAP), while a follow-up counselor was hired to make routine contacts with the special follow-up group. Study intake continued through 1985, and follow-up continued through the end of 1986. Data collected on study subjects included EAP participation data, absenteeism, number of hospitalizations, health care claims paid and disability claims paid. The major study hypothesis was that EAP clients randomly allocated to special follow-up would show better results than regular care clients (i.e., would have fewer relapses, better job attendance and lower health benefit utilization during the follow-up year). The follow-up intervention was incompletely implemented due to a variety of organizational problems. Differences between the two groups on the six outcome measures were not statistically significant, although clients in the special follow-up group did show better results than clients in the regular care group on the three measures related to substance abuse. Differences on these three measures were marginally significant in regression analyses after controlling for the effects of number of follow-up visits, age, race and chronicity.",1991,May,J Stud Alcohol,52,3,241-8,2046374,Foote 1991,Not workplace based
The effects of psychoactive substances on workplace performance,"Coambs, R. B.; McAndrews, M. P.",,1994,,Drug testing in the workplace,,,77-102,,Coambs 1994,Reviews or commentaries
The health and cost benefits of work site health-promotion programs,"Goetzel, R. Z.; Ozminkowski, R. J.",,2008,,,29,,303-323,,Goetzel 2008,Reviews or commentaries
EMPLOYEE ASSISTANCE PROGRAMS,"Walsh, D. C.",,1982,1982,Milbank Memorial Fund Quarterly-Health and Society,60,3,492-517,WOS:A1982PN68200006,Walsh 1982,Reviews or commentaries
Integration of Medical Care and Worksite Health Promotion,"Stokols, D.; Pelletier, K. R.; Fielding, J. E.",,1995,12-Apr,JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association,273,14,1136-1142,7707603,Stokols 1995,Reviews or commentaries
Primary prevention and the workplace,"Vicary, J. R.",,1994,Dec,The Journal of Primary Prevention,15,2,99-103,24254464,Vicary 1994,Reviews or commentaries
"Drugs, the workplace, and employee-oriented programming","Roman, P.; Blum, T.",,1992,,Treating Drug Problems: Volume 2,2,,,,Roman 1992,Reviews or commentaries
Prevention of substance abuse in the workplace: Review of research on the delivery of services,"Cook, R.; Schlenger, W.","With the growing recognition that most illicit drug users and heavy drinkers are members of the work force, the workplace has become an increasingly significant, though still underutilized, vehicle for the delivery of substance abuse prevention services. This paper discusses some of the chief reasons for engaging in substance abuse prevention in the workplace; outlines the foundations of workplace prevention services; and reviews recent research on workplace substance abuse prevention, including the major preventive interventions aimed at the workplace environment and the individual worker. The paper closes with a discussion of future programming and research on the delivery of workplace prevention services.",2002,,Journal of Primary Prevention,23,1,115-142,,Cook 2002,Reviews or commentaries
How effective is drug testing as a workplace safety strategy? A systematic review of the evidence,"Pidd, K.; Roche, A. M.","The growing prevalence of workplace drug testing and the narrow scope of previous reviews of the evidence base necessitate a comprehensive review of research concerning the efficacy of drug testing as a workplace strategy. A systematic qualitative review of relevant research published between January 1990 and January 2013 was undertaken. Inclusion criteria were studies that evaluated the effectiveness of drug testing in deterring employee drug use or reducing workplace accident or injury rates. Methodological adequacy was assessed using a published assessment tool specifically designed to assess the quality of intervention studies. A total of 23 studies were reviewed and assessed, six of which reported on the effectiveness of testing in reducing employee drug use and 17 which reported on occupational accident or injury rates. No studies involved randomised control trials. Only one study was assessed as demonstrating strong methodological rigour. That study found random alcohol testing reduced fatal accidents in the transport industry. The majority of studies reviewed contained methodological weaknesses including; inappropriate study design, limited sample representativeness, the use of ecological data to evaluate individual behaviour change and failure to adequately control for potentially confounding variables. This latter finding is consistent with previous reviews and indicates the evidence base for the effectiveness of testing in improving workplace safety is at best tenuous. Better dissemination of the current evidence in relation to workplace drug testing is required to support evidence-informed policy and practice. There is also a pressing need for more methodologically rigorous research to evaluate the efficacy and utility of drug testing.",2014,Oct,Accid Anal Prev,71,,154-65,24922614,Pidd 2014,Reviews or commentaries
Drug Testing in the Workplace,"Colakis, Peter N.; Bruce, Roger","The article discusses the significance of maintaining a drug-free workplace to attain business competitiveness in the global market. According to the authors, a drug-free workplace provides short-term and long-term benefits to employers and employees, including incentives programs and reduced costs of insurance claims. They suggest the potential of using an oral fluid-based testing method to ensure the attainment of a zero-tolerance drug policy. The assert that oral fluid is a precise specimen matrix for determining drug abuse, as well as various clinical applications, including human immunodeficiency viruses screening.",2007,,Professional Safety,52,7,31-36,25788918,Colakis 2007,Reviews or commentaries
Case for drug testing of construction workers,"Minchin Jr, R. E.; Glagola, C. R.; Guo, K.; Languell, J. L.",,2006,,Journal of Management in Engineering,22,1,43-50,,MinchinJr 2006,Reviews or commentaries
Testing for cannabis in the work-place: a review of the evidence,"Macdonald, S.; Hall, W.; Roman, P.; Stockwell, T.; Coghlan, M.; Nesvaag, S.","BACKGROUND: Urinalysis testing in the work-place has been adopted widely by employers in the United States to deter employee drug use and promote 'drug-free' work-places. In other countries, such as Canada, testing is focused more narrowly on identifying employees whose drug use puts the safety of others at risk. AIMS: We review 20 years of published literature on questions relevant to the objectives of work-place drug testing (WPDT), with a special emphasis on cannabis, the most commonly detected drug. RESULTS: We conclude (i) that the acute effects of smoking cannabis impair performance for a period of about 4 hours; (ii) long-term heavy use of cannabis can impair cognitive ability, but it is not clear that heavy cannabis users represent a meaningful job safety risk unless using before work or on the job; (iii) urine tests have poor validity and low sensitivity to detect employees who represent a safety risk; (iv) drug testing is related to reductions in the prevalence of cannabis positive tests among employees, but this might not translate into fewer cannabis users; and (v) urinalysis has not been shown to have a meaningful impact on job injury/accident rates. CONCLUSIONS: Urinalysis testing is not recommended as a diagnostic tool to identify employees who represent a job safety risk from cannabis use. Blood testing for active tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) can be considered by employers who wish to identify employees whose performance may be impaired by their cannabis use.",2010,,"Addiction (Abingdon, England)",105,3,408-416,,Macdonald 2010,Reviews or commentaries
Systematic review of the impact of worksite wellness programs,"Osilla, K. C.; Van Busum, K.; Schnyer, C.; Larkin, J. W.; Eibner, C.; Mattke, S.","OBJECTIVES: To analyze the impact of worksite wellness programs on health and financial outcomes, and the effect of incentives on participation. METHODS: Sources were PubMed, CINAHL and EconLit, Embase, Web of Science, and Cochrane for 2000-2011. We examined articles with comparison groups that assessed health-related behaviors, physiologic markers, healthcare cost, and absenteeism. Data on intervention, outcome, size, industry, research design, and incentive use were extracted. RESULTS: A total of 33 studies evaluated 63 outcomes. Positive effects were found for threefourths of observational designs compared with half of outcomes in randomized controlled trials. A total of 8 of 13 studies found improvements in physical activity, 6 of 12 in diet, 6 of 12 in body mass index/weight, and 3 of 4 in mental health. A total of 6 of 7 studies on tobacco and 2 of 3 on alcohol use found significant reductions. All 4 studies on absenteeism and 7 of 8 on healthcare costs estimated significant decreases. Only 2 of 23 studies evaluated the impact of incentives and found positive health outcomes and decreased costs. CONCLUSIONS: The studies yielded mixed results regarding impact of wellness programs on healthrelated behaviors, substance use, physiologic markers, and cost, while the evidence for effects on absenteeism and mental health is insufficient. The validity of those findings is reduced by the lack of rigorous evaluation designs. Further, the body of publications is in stark contrast to the widespread use of such programs, and research on the effect of incentives is lacking.",2012,1-Feb,Am J Manag Care,18,2,e68-81,22435887,Osilla 2012,Reviews or commentaries
Universal prevention of alcohol and drug use: An overview of reviews in an Australian context,"Mewton, L.; Visontay, R.; Chapman, C.; Newton, N.; Slade, T.; Kay-Lambkin, F.; Teesson, M.","ISSUES: This overview of reviews will synthesise information from existing reviews to provide a summary of the evidence for universal alcohol and illicit drug prevention strategies across different intervention settings. APPROACH: Academic databases, including Medline, EMBASE and PsycInfo were searched on 1 August 2016. All reviews and meta-analyses of universal alcohol and drug prevention conducted since 2006 were included. The reviews included in this overview were grouped according to the different settings where prevention strategies have been applied (i.e. family, school, college, workplace, leisure, healthcare, community, media and policy). KEY FINDINGS: Fifty-two reviews met the inclusion criteria and were included in this report. There is sufficient evidence to support universal preventive interventions for alcohol in family and school settings. In terms of reducing drug use, there is sufficient evidence to support the use of school- and leisure-based universal primary prevention strategies. Based on evidence published in the last 10 years, mass media campaigns to do not appear to be effective in reducing drug use. More evidence is needed to support preventive interventions in college, workplace, healthcare and community settings. IMPLICATIONS: Through the identification of settings where preventive interventions are effective, this overview can be used to guide alcohol and drug policy and the allocation of resources. CONCLUSION: The evidence base for universal prevention in several settings could be strengthened, guiding priorities for future research.",2018,Apr,Drug Alcohol Rev,37 Suppl 1,,S435-s469,29582489,Mewton 2018,Reviews or commentaries
MAPs: Labor-Based Peer Assistance in the Workplace,"Bacharach, Samuel B.; Bamberger, Peter A.; Sonnenstuhl, William J.","An offshoot of management-based Employee Assistance Programs, Member Assistance Programs (MAPs) are peer-based programs designed to help union members suffering from substance abuse and other personal problems. Although a relatively recent phenomenon, MAP's are rooted in traditional union principles of voluntarism and mutual aid. This article examines the emergence and growing popularity of MAPs, differences in MAP structure and orientation across unions, and the potential significance of MAPs to unions, and industrial relations.",1996,,Industrial Relations,35,2,261-275,389874,Bacharach 1996,Reviews or commentaries
Drug and alcohol testing,"Walker, R.; Sack, B.",,2003,,Journal of Occupational Health and Safety - Australia and New Zealand,19,2,115-119,,Walker 2003,Reviews or commentaries
Pissing on demand: Workplace drug testing and the rise of the detox industry,"Tunnell, K. D.",,2004,,,,,1-178,,Tunnell 2004,Reviews or commentaries
A Program for Control of Drug Abuse in Industry,"Hine, C. H. M. D. PhD; Wright, J. A. Bs",,1970,"Apr 1970
2012-06-28",Occupational Health Nursing,18,4,"17-18,41",1012761739,Hine 1970,Reviews or commentaries
Chemical abuse rehabilitation for hospital employees: examination of benefit usage when referred by an employee assistance professional,"Callery, Y. C.","1. Chemical abuse is the third leading health problem in the United States. Approximately 7 million workers are addicted to chemicals. 2. There is a relationship between chemical abuse and poor job performance (decreased productivity and efficiency, tardiness) and excessive use of sick time, disability, and workers' compensation. 3. An equivalent quasi-experimental design with a control group was used to examine benefit usage pre- and post-chemical abuse rehabilitation. Wilcoxon's signed rank test demonstrated sick time, late arrival/early departure, and absent time were not comparable before rehabilitation, but became similar after rehabilitation. 4. The researcher concluded that chemically dependent hospital employees who are referred and complete an inpatient rehabilitation program will experience benefit usage comparable to the employee population without recognized chemical abuse.",1994,Feb,Aaohn j,42,2,67-75,8147990,Callery 1994,Reviews or commentaries
Workplace interventions I: Drug testing job applicants and employees,"Frone, M. R.",,2013,,Alcohol and Illicit Drug Use in the Workforce and Workplace,,,143-175,,Frone 2013,Reviews or commentaries
Workplace managed care: Collaboration for substance abuse prevention,"Galvin, Deborah M.","A study describes the history, purpose and overall methodology of the Workplace Managed Care study sponsored by the Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Center of Substance Abuse Prevention. The study was initiated to discern best practices for workplaces and managed care organizations integrating their substance abuse prevention and early intervention programs, strategies and activities for employees and their families. Results of the study suggest the addition of substance abuse prevention material to existing workplace health promotion offerings resulted in improved substance abuse attitudes without jeopardizing existing health promotion programs.",2000,"May 2000
2014-08-23",The Journal of Behavioral Health Services & Research,27,2,125-30,205219141; 10795123,Galvin 2000,Reviews or commentaries