Table 1.

The impact of PA on innate immune inflammatory responses and memory.

Conditions	Responses	Biological effects	Models used	References
Simultaneous PA + LPS (in vitro)	Priming	Enhanced ceramide; enhanced TNF/IL-6 secretion; JNK dependent	Primary & immortalized mouse macrophages	Schilling et al., 2013; Jin et al., 2013; Nishiyama et al., 2018
PA pre-treatment + LPS (in vitro)	Trained immunity	Enhanced TNF/IL-6/IL-1β secretion, all ceramide dependent; role of mitochondria and MAPK signaling	Primary mouse macrophages; immortalized human & mouse macrophages	Seufert et al., 2022; Fang et al., 2022; Caslin et al., 2023; Schwartz et al., 2010
PA pre-treatment + LPS (in vivo)	Trained immunity	Enhanced circulating inflammation; decreased survival	Wild type female BALB/c mice	Seufert et al., 2022
PA pre-treatment + infection (in vivo)	Trained immunity	Enhanced microbial clearance	Rag−/− mice + Candida albicans infection; wild type female BALB/c mice + Brucella abortus infection	Seufert et al., 2022; Reyes et al., 2021