Table 3.

Molecular abnormalities in SCC.

Marker	Class	Function	Abnormality	NMSC	HNSCC	ESCC	NSCLC
TP53	CCR	Tumor-suppressor gene regulating cell-cycle progression and cell survival	GE, GM	●	●	●	●
pRB	CCR	Tumor-suppressor gene regulating cell-cycle progression and apoptosis	GE		●[237]
p16	CCR	Tumor-suppressor gene regulating senescence and cell-cycle progression	GM, M		●	●
PTEN	CCR	Tumor-suppressor gene controlling cell proliferation and apoptosis	GE		●[237]
MKI67 (Ki-67)	CCR	Proto-oncogene regulating cell proliferation, increased from normal to pre-cancer	GE	●	●	●	●
CCND1	CCR	Proto-oncogene regulating cell-cycle progression	GE	●	●	●
p63	CCR	A member of the p53 family of transcription factors	GE	●	●	●	●
p27	CCR	G1 arrest	GE			●[238]
CD95	CCR	Death ligands	GE	● [239]
FHIT	CCR	Negative regulation of progression through cell cycle	GE			●[240]
Bcl-x	CCR	regulate programmed cell death	GE			●[235]
Bcl-2	CCR	regulate programmed cell death	GE			●[103]
Bax	CCR	regulate programmed cell death	GE			●[236]
EGFR	ST	Transmembrane TK acting as a central transducer of multiple signaling pathways	GE, GM	●	●	●	●
VEGF	ST	Transmembrane TK that promotes the proliferation, migration, and survival of endothelial cells during tumor growth	GE		●	●
HER2	ST	Cell membrane surface-bound receptor tyrosine kinase leading to cell growth and differentiation	GE		●[241]	●[234]
Annexin I	ST	Cell surface receptor linked signal transduction	GE			●[242]
RRas2	ST	Small GTPase mediated signal transduction	GE, GM			●[243]
Smad6/7	ST	TGF beta receptor signaling pathway	GE			●[229]
NKX2-1 (TTF-1)	ST	Regulates gene trancription	GE, GM				●
BRAF	ST	Protein kinase is involved in sending signals in cells and in cell growth	GE, GM				●
c-MET	ST	Membrane receptor that is essential for embryonic development and wound healing	GE, GM				●
PEDF	ST	Serine protease inhibitor	GE				●[244]
PIK3CA	ST	Phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase	GE, GM				●
LKB1	ST	Protein kinase regulates cell polarity and functions as a tumor suppressor	GE, GM				●
RASSF1A	ST	Encord protein mediated signal transduction	GE, M				●
CD24	ST	Encord protein mediated signal transduction	GE				●[101]
CD44v6	CA	Transmembrane glycoproteins that maintain tissue integrity by mediating contact between cells or between cells and the extracellular matrix	GE		●[230]
CDH1	CA	Ca 2+ -dependent cell-cell adhesion molecule, induce and maintain intercellular connections	GE, M	●		●
Trop2	CA	Cell adhesion, signal transduction	GE		●[231]
EpCAM	CA	Cell adhesion, signal transduction	GE, GM		●[232]
ALCAM	CA	Cell adhesion, signal transduction	GE			●[245]
MMPs	EMD	A family of zinc-dependent proteolytic enzymes that degrade the basement membrane and other components of the extracellular matrix	GE	●	●	●
COX-2	PM	Prostaglandin metabllism	GE	●	●	●	●
SOX-2	TF	Transcription factor	GE		●	●	●
AP-1	TF	Transcript factor	GE	●[246]
PPARb/d	TF	Transcript factor	GE	●[247]
CK-14	CK	Epidermis development	GE			●[248]
CK-4	CK	Cytoskeleton organization and biogenesis	GE			●[248]

CCR = cell-cycle regulation

ST = signal transduction

CA = cell adhesion

EMD = extracellular matrix degradation

PM = protein metabolism

TF = transcript factor

CK = cytokeratin

PK = protein kinase

GE = gene expression

GM = gene mutation

M = methylation