Table 4.

Associations between food insecurity and sociodemographic factors and total (dietary+supplement) micronutrient inadequacy in the study participants: pregnant women (n 274), PRISM study, Boston, MA, USA, March 2011–August 2012

Micronutrients	Low maternal education†		Food insecurity		Difficulty with income‡		Difficulty with bills‡
	OR	95% CI	OR	95% CI	OR	95% CI	OR	95% CI
Antioxidants
Vitamin A	4·14*	1·54, 11·11	2·64*	1·04, 6·67	2·46	0·77, 7·84	1·49	0·55, 4·03
β-Carotene§	3·71	1·96, 7·01	1·81	0·98, 3·37	3·11*	1·73, 5·56	3·60*	2·01, 6·43
Vitamin C	4·85*	1·62, 14·52	6·09*	2·16, 17·16	4·20*	1·14, 15·56	4·37*	1·31, 15·50
Vitamin E	4·08*	2·13, 7·81	2·53*	1·33, 4·83	2·29*	1·29, 4·05	2·26*	1·29, 3·98
Mg	2·19*	1·19, 4·04	1·92*	1·03, 3·56	1·42	0·79, 2·53	1·24	0·70, 2·20
Se§	3·12*	1·68, 5·80	2·57*	1·37, 4·82	1·62	0·93, 2·81	1·75*	1·01, 3·02
Zn	3·24*	1·40, 7·54	1·45	0·64, 3·31	1·93	0·76, 4·88	1·55	0·66, 3·65
Methyl/epigenetic nutrients
Vitamin B12	1·22	0·22, 6·71	0·84	0·15, 4·72	1·05	0·18, 6·16	0·71	0·14, 3·64
Vitamin B6	3·39*	1·51, 7·62	1·40	0·63, 3·14	1·73	0·72, 4·19	1·44	0·63, 3·28
Folate	0·93	0·40, 2·16	1·68	0·77, 3·70	3·22*	1·24, 8·35	2·14	0·93, 4·91
Riboflavin	2·73	0·46, 16·36	0·84	0·15, 4·71	1·07	0·18, 6·21	0·72	0·14, 3·68
Fe	3·33*	1·74, 6·39	2·31*	1·20, 4·45	2·09*	1·19, 3·65	2·31*	1·32, 4·05
Methionine§||	1·63	0·90, 2·95	1·00	0·55, 1·82	0·93	0·54, 1·60	0·86	0·50, 1·47
Choline||	0·46	0·14, 1·56	0·37	0·11, 1·19	0·38	0·10, 1·48	0·40	0·11, 1·41
Betaine§||	7·60*	3·80, 15·20	3·26*	1·69, 6·27	3·11*	1·73, 5·56	3·60*	2·01, 6·43
Bone-related
Vitamin D	2·48*	1·14, 5·42	1·24	0·59, 2·58	1·05	0·56, 1·98	1·36	0·72, 2·57
Ca	1·51	0·71, 3·21	1·61	0·77, 3·36	1·48	0·71, 3·08	1·52	0·74, 3·13
P§||	0·70	0·39, 1·27	1·11	0·61, 2·04	0·78	0·45, 1·35	0·69	0·40, 1·20
Electrolytes
K§||	2·44*	1·32, 4·51	1·25	0·68, 2·31	1·06	0·61, 1·83	1·06	0·61, 1·84
Na§||	1·26	0·70, 2·26	1·24	0·68, 2·25	1·11	0·65, 1·91	1·16	0·68, 1·99
Other
Thiamin	8·20*	2·24, 30·00	4·87*	1·61, 14·78	2·22	0·58, 8·55	3·30	0·86, 12·71
Niacin	6·56*	1·64, 26·20	2·55	0·82, 7·92	2·02	0·52, 7·91	5·20*	1·08, 25·07
Vitamin K||	3·16*	1·53, 6·54	1·86	0·91, 3·84	4·01*	1·66, 9·72	2·29*	1·08, 4·85

PRISM, PRogramming of Intergenerational Stress Mechanisms.

All analyses were adjusted for maternal age, BMI and smoking during pregnancy.

^*Represents significance (P<0·05).

^†Women with some college education or college degree are the reference group.

^‡Women with no difficulty are the reference group.

^§The median cut-point was used to define high and low intake (β-carotene: 4172·63μg; Se: 111·36μg; methionine: 1·49 mg; betaine: 159·89 mg; P: 1352·36 mg; K: 2·78 g; Na: 3·15 g);

^||Based on dietary intake only.