Table 1.

Outcomes assessed in experimental pictorial warning studies

Construct	Definition	Example item	Examples of authors' terminology
Attention and recall
Attention attracting	The extent to which the warning attracted or grabbed the participant's attention	The pack grabbed my attention²⁹	Attract attention, salience
Attention duration	Amount of time participant spent viewing the warning label	NA (objective measure)	Looking time
Response time	The amount of time it took participant to complete questions or click forward after viewing the warning label	NA (objective measure)	Response latencies, response time
Recall/recognition of warning text	Whether participant could remember warning text following exposure	Try to recall what the warning information on the package stated and type it in the box below²⁸	Recall, aided recall, correctly recalling warning statement
Warning reactions—cognitive, emotional and physiological
Cognitive elaboration	The extent to which the participant thought about the warning's content (eg, the harms of smoking)	To what extent, if at all, do those health warnings make you think about the health risks?³⁵	Think about health risks of smoking, think about harms
Negative affective reactions	Negative emotional reactions to the warning, such as fear or disgust	How afraid, worried, uncomfortable or disgusted participants felt after having seen each warning³⁶	Negative affect, emotional reactions, evoked fear, fear intensity
Credibility	Perceptions of believability or truthfulness of the warning	The pack is believable³⁷	Credibility, perceived credibility, believability
Lower psychological reactance	Lack of a negative reaction in response to a perceived threat to one's freedom	How irritated, angry, annoyed, and aggravated the warnings made the participant (reverse coded)³⁸	State reactance, emotional reactions
Lower smoking cravings	The extent to which one does not crave a cigarette	I want a cigarette right now (reverse coded)³⁹	Cravings to smoke, aversion to smoking
Aversiveness	The extent to which the warning was difficult to look at	The pack was difficult to look at²⁹	Pack difficult to look at
Attitudes and beliefs
Negative pack/brand attitudes	Negative evaluation of the cigarette pack or brand	Attitudes toward the package of cigarettes: unfavourable/favourable, negative/positive, and bad/good (reverse coded)²⁸	Package attractiveness, package attitude, brand attitude
Negative smoking attitudes	Negative evaluation of smoking behaviour	Smoking helps people relax, smoking helps to reduce stress, smoking helps to keep weight down (reverse coded)⁴⁰	Attitude toward cigarettes, smoking-related stereotypes
Perceived likelihood of harm	Beliefs that smoking cigarettes is likely to lead to health-related harms	Please evaluate your future risk of developing each of the following diseases: lung cancer, etc⁴¹	Risk of smoking-related diseases, smoking effects scale, perceived susceptibility, vulnerability
Self-efficacy to quit	Confidence in one's ability to quit smoking	I do not need help from anyone to quit smoking³⁹	Quit efficacy, self-efficacy
Intentions
Lower willingness to pay	Prices assigned to cigarette packs with and without pictorial warnings	NA (monetary amount)	Perceived value for the pack
Intention to not start smoking	Likelihood of not starting smoking	Do you think that you will smoke a cigarette at anytime during the next year?⁴⁰	Intent to smoke, intentions to start smoking
Intention to quit smoking	Likelihood of quitting smoking	How likely do you think it is that you will try to quit smoking within the next 30 days?³⁹	Intention to quit, quit intentions
Perceived effectiveness of warning labels to...
Motivate me/others to not start smoking	Perception of warning message's motivational value for participant/others not starting smoking	How effective label would be in convincing youth not to start smoking⁴²	Motivation to remain abstinent, effectiveness rating—convincing youth not to start
Motivate me to cut down smoking	Perception of warning message's motivational value for participant cutting down on smoking	Indicate the chances that they would reduce the number of cigarettes smoked if the image they were viewing appeared on the cigarette or tobacco brand they normally purchased⁴²	Foregoing a cigarette, reduce consumption
Motivate me to quit smoking	Perception of warning message's motivational value for participant quitting smoking	The information presented on this package would help me quit smoking²⁵	Perceived intentions to quit, motivation to quit smoking, perceived impact on the decision to quit smoking
Motivate others to quit smoking	Perception of warning message's motivational value for others quitting smoking	How effective label would be in motivating smokers to quit⁴²	Motivate smokers to quit, encourage other smokers to quit
Motivate me/others to not smoke (composite asked of smoker/non-smoker samples together)	Perception of warning message's motivational value to not smoke	Due to this warning, I would cut down/not start smoking. My smoking behaviour would be influenced by this warning⁴³	Encourage others to quit/discourage others from starting, effectiveness evaluation
Be generally effective (typically single item)	Perception of the general effectiveness of the warning message (no referent, such as participant or others, provided)	Overall, on a scale of 1-10, how effective is this health warning?⁴⁴	Overall effectiveness, most effective
Be effective for me/others (multiple-item scale)	Perceptions about the effectiveness of the warning message for participant/others	Multiple item scales, such as: the pack makes me want to quit smoking. The pack will make people more concerned about the health risks of smoking. The pack will prevent young people from starting to smoke³⁷	Perceived effectiveness, perceived impact
Deter giving cigarettes as gift	Perceptions of the extent to which a warning label would deter a participant from wanting to give cigarettes as a gift	If you want to use cigarettes as a gift, do the following cigarette labels make you change your mind and not do so?⁴⁵	Perceived impact of giving cigarettes as a gift