Table 1.
Characteristics and Effect Sizes of Studies Included in Meta-Analysis
| Short Citation and Experiment |
News Topics | Sample Sizes (N) | Percentage of Female Participants |
Mean Age | Misinformation Effect Size |
Debunking Effect Size |
Misinformation- Persistence Effect Size |
Publication Status | Online vs. Lab Data Collection |
Generation of explanations in line with the Misinformation |
Generation of Counter- arguments to the Misinformation |
Detail of Debunking Messages |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Berinsky, 2012 | ||||||||||||
| Experiment 1 | Report that the 2010 Affordable Care Act (ACA) contains descriptions of death panels | 618 | - | - | - | - | 0.07 | WP | O | −0.93 | −0.91 | ND |
| Experiment 1 | Report that the 2010 Affordable Care Act (ACA) contains descriptions of death panels | 618 | - | - | - | - | −0.10 | WP | O | −0.93 | −0.91 | ND |
| Experiment 1 | Report that the 2010 Affordable Care Act (ACA) contains descriptions of death panels | 618 | - | - | - | - | −0.28 | WP | O | −0.93 | −0.91 | ND |
| Experiment 1 | Report that the 2010 Affordable Care Act (ACA) contains descriptions of death panels | 618 | - | - | - | - | −0.32 | WP | O | −0.93 | −0.91 | ND |
| Experiment 1 | Report that the 2010 Affordable Care Act (ACA) contains descriptions of death panels | 618 | - | - | - | - | −0.42 | WP | O | −0.93 | −0.91 | ND |
| Experiment 2 | Report that the 2010 Affordable Care Act (ACA) contains descriptions of death panels | 278 | - | - | - | - | 0.19 | WP | O | −0.93 | −0.91 | ND |
| Experiment 2 | Report that the 2010 Affordable Care Act (ACA) contains descriptions of death panels | 278 | - | - | - | - | −0.15 | WP | O | −0.93 | −0.91 | ND |
| Bullock, 2007 | ||||||||||||
| Experiment 1 | Positions of political candidates on policy arguments about Medicaid | 204 | 48 | - | - | - | 0.93 | T | O | −0.04 | −0.37 | ND |
| Experiment 1 | Positions of political candidates on policy arguments about Medicaid | 209 | 48 | - | - | - | 0.32 | T | O | −0.04 | −0.37 | ND |
| Experiment 2 | Positions of political candidates on policy arguments about Medicaid | 58 | 74 | - | - | - | 0.25 | T | O | −0.04 | −0.37 | ND |
| Experiment 2 | Positions of political candidates on policy arguments about Medicaid | 173 | 74 | - | - | - | −0.63 | T | O | −0.04 | −0.37 | ND |
| Experiment 3 | Positions of political candidates on spending on social services, protecting the environment versus job, and government aid to blacks | 100 | 64 | - | - | - | 0.36 | T | O | −0.04 | −0.37 | - |
| Experiment 3 | Positions of political candidates on spending on social services, protecting the environment versus job, and government aid to blacks | 165 | 64 | - | - | - | 0.20 | T | O | −0.04 | −0.37 | - |
| Ecker, Lewandowsky, & Tang, 2010 | ||||||||||||
| Experiment 1 | Report about the causes of a minibus accident | 50 | 76 | 19.1 | - | 0.42 | 3.26 | JA | −0.04 | −0.37 | D | |
| Experiment 1 | Report about the causes of a minibus accident | 50 | 76 | 19.1 | - | 0.74 | 2.71 | JA | L | −0.04 | −0.37 | D |
| Experiment 1 | Report about the causes of a minibus accident | 50 | 76 | 19.1 | - | 1.19 | 1.77 | JA | L | −0.04 | 0.18 | D |
| Experiment 1 | Report about the causes of a minibus accident | 50 | 76 | 19.1 | - | 1.23 | 1.69 | JA | L | −0.04 | −0.37 | D |
| Experiment 2 | Report about the causes of a minibus accident | 92 | 72 | 19.9 | 3.31 | 2.34 | 0.83 | JA | L | −0.04 | 0.18 | D |
| Ecker, Lewandonsky, & Apai, 2011 | ||||||||||||
| Experiment 1 | Report about the causes of a plane crash | 20 | - | - | 9.89 | - | - | JA | L | −0.93 | −0.91 | - |
| Experiment 1 | Report about the causes of a plane crash | 20 | - | - | 8.91 | - | - | JA | L | −0.93 | −0.91 | - |
| Experiment 1 | Report about the causes of a plane crash | 30 | - | - | - | −1.31 | 10.38 | JA | L | −0.04 | −0.91 | D |
| Experiment 1 | Report about the causes of a plane crash | 30 | - | - | - | −0.73 | 6.45 | JA | L | −0.04 | 1.21 | D |
| Experiment 1 | Report about the causes of a plane crash | 30 | - | - | - | 4.74 | 1.61 | JA | L | −0.04 | −0.91 | D |
| Experiment 1 | Report about the causes of a plane crash | 30 | - | - | - | 4.55 | 1.04 | JA | L | −0.04 | 1.21 | D |
| Experiment 2 | Report about the causes of a plane crash | 32 | 85 | 21.4 | 2.49 | - | - | JA | L | −0.93 | −0.91 | - |
| Experiment 2 | Report about the causes of a plane crash | 32 | 85 | 21.4 | 1.34 | - | - | JA | L | −0.93 | −0.91 | - |
| Experiment 2 | Report about the causes of a plane crash | 48 | 85 | 21.4 | - | 0.87 | 0.80 | JA | L | −0.04 | −0.91 | D |
| Experiment 2 | Report about the causes of a plane crash | 48 | 85 | 21.4 | - | 0.98 | 0.64 | JA | L | −0.04 | −0.91 | D |
| Experiment 2 | Report about the causes of a plane crash | 64 | 85 | 21.4 | - | 1.03 | 0.50 | JA | L | −0.04 | 1.21 | D |
| Experiment 2 | Report about the causes of a plane crash | 64 | 85 | 21.4 | - | 0.88 | 0.81 | JA | L | −0.04 | 1.21 | D |
| Ecker et al., 2011 | ||||||||||||
| Experiment 1 | Report about the causes of a warehouse fire accident | 69 | 67 | - | 1.55 | 0.72 | 0.83 | JA | L | 2.22 | 1.21 | - |
| Experiment 1 | Report about the causes of a warehouse fire accident | 69 | 67 | - | 1.55 | 1.17 | 0.38 | JA | L | 2.22 | 1.21 | - |
| Experiment 1 | Report about the causes of a warehouse fire accident | 69 | 67 | - | 1.2 | 0.76 | 0.44 | JA | L | 2.22 | 1.21 | - |
| Experiment 1 | Report about the causes of a warehouse fire accident | 69 | 67 | - | 1.2 | 0.79 | 0.41 | JA | L | 2.22 | 1.21 | - |
| Experiment 2 | Report about the causes of a warehouse fire accident | 46 | 69 | - | - | 0.33 | - | JA | 1.33 | 1.21 | - | |
| Experiment 2 | Report about the causes of a warehouse fire accident | 46 | 69 | - | - | 0.29 | - | JA | L | 1.33 | 1.21 | - |
| Experiment 2 | Report about the causes of a warehouse fire accident | 46 | 69 | - | - | 0.46 | - | JA | L | 1.33 | 1.21 | - |
| Experiment 2 | Report about the causes of a warehouse fire accident | 46 | 69 | - | - | 0.35 | - | JA | L | 1.33 | 1.21 | - |
| Ecker et al., 2014 | ||||||||||||
| Experiment 1 | Report about the person responsible for a liquor store robbery | 72 | 67 | 19 | 2.28 | 0.65 | 1.28 | JA | L | −0.04 | −0.91 | D |
| Experiment 1 | Report about the person responsible for a liquor store robbery | 72 | 67 | 19 | 1.68 | 0.93 | 1.12 | JA | L | −0.04 | −0.91 | D |
| Experiment 2 | Report about the person responsible for an attempted bank robbery | 50 | 69 | 19 | - | 0.69 | - | JA | L | −0.04 | −0.91 | D |
| Experiment 2 | Report about the person responsible for an attempted bank robbery | 50 | 69 | 19 | - | 0.73 | - | JA | L | −0.04 | −0.91 | D |
| Johnson & Seifert, 1994 | ||||||||||||
| Experiment 1 | Report about the causes of a warehouse fire accident | 20 | - | - | - | - | 1.95 | JA | L | −0.04 | 1.21 | D |
| Experiment 1 | Report about the causes of a warehouse fire accident | 20 | - | - | - | - | 1.52 | JA | L | −0.04 | 1.21 | D |
| Experiment 1.5 | Report about the causes of a warehouse fire accident | 20 | - | - | - | - | 1.12 | JA | L | −0.04 | 1.21 | D |
| Experiment 1.5 | Report about the causes of a warehouse fire accident | 20 | - | - | - | - | 0.98 | JA | L | −0.04 | 1.21 | D |
| Experiment 2 | Report about the causes of a warehouse fire accident | 60 | - | - | 2.74 | 0.54 | 1.91 | JA | L | −0.04 | 1.21 | ND |
| Experiment 3 | Report about the causes of a police investigation into a theft at a private home | 81 | - | - | 0.96 | −0.11 | 0.96 | JA | L | −0.04 | 1.21 | ND |
| Experiment 3.5 | Report about the causes of a police investigation into a theft at a private home | 27 | - | - | 0.57 | JA | L | −0.04 | 1.21 | D | ||
| Thorson, 2013 | ||||||||||||
| Experiment 1 | Report of a political candidate who accepted campaign donations from a convicted felon | 157 | - | - | 5.71 | 2.88 | 1.22 | T | O | −0.93 | −0.91 | ND |
| Experiment 2 | Report of a political candidate who accepted campaign donations from a convicted felon | 240 | - | - | 4.62 | 3.40 | 0.91 | T | O | −0.93 | −0.91 | D |
| Experiment 2 | Report of a political candidate who accepted campaign donations from a convicted felon | 234 | - | - | 3.98 | 3.97 | −0.32 | T | O | −0.93 | −0.91 | D |
Note. Publication status (WP = working paper, T = thesis, JA = journal article); Online vs. lab data collection (O = online data collection, L= lab data collection); Generation of explanations in line with the misinformation; Generation of counter-arguments to the misinformation; Detail of debunking messages (ND = not detailed debunking information, D = detailed debunking information).