Table 2.

Results of Effect Size Estimates With (Top Panel) and Without (Bottom Panel) Outliers

	Fixed-Effects Model				Random-Effects Model				Three-Level Random-Effects Model						Random-Effects Model with Weights
	k	d.	95% CI	Q	d.	95% CI	τ2	I2	cluster	df	d.	95% Wald CI	I2(2)	I2(3)	d.	95% CI	τ2	I2
All Effects
Misinformation	16	2.04	1.93 – 2.14	590.44***	3.08	2.02 – 4.15	4.48 (1.66)	98.99	0	14	3.08	2.00 – 4.15	98.99	-	2.94	1.80 – 4.08	4.48 (1.66)	98.99
Debunking	30	0.88	0.81– 0.93	1031.21***	1.14	0.68 – 1.61	1.65 (0.44)	98.45	30	28	1.14	0.68 – 1.61	98.45	-	1.33	0.62 – 2.04	2.28 (0.72)	98.76
Misinformation- Persistencea	42	0.09	0.07– 0.12	1701.81***	0.97	0.60 – 1.35	1.46 (0.33)	99.47	8	39	0.92	0.40 – 1.44	63.35	35.93	1.06	0.68 – 1.44	1.38 (0.32)	99.45
Effects Without Outliers
Misinformationb	14	2.01	1.91 – 2.12	540.03***	2.46	1.73 – 3.19	1.87 (0.77)	97.91	6	11	2.49	1.53 – 3.45	24.82	72.78	2.41	1.63 – 3.20	1.87 (0.72)	97.91
Misinformation- Persistencec	40	0.09	0.06– 0.12	1584.65***	0.75	0.50 – 1.00	0.60 (0.14)	99.47	8	37	0.79	0.36 – 1.23	39.18	59.49	0.77	0.48 – 1.05	0.62 (0.16)	98.91

Note. k = number of samples; d. = mean Hedges’ d; 95% CI = 95% confidence interval; Q = Cochran’ Q test; τ² = estimated amount of total heterogeneity (and standard error); I² = level of between-sample heterogeneity; Random-effects model with weights used standardized N residuals as weights; - = no estimation of effect size was performed because no missing study was identified on the left-hand side of the funnel plot in Figure 2; df = degree of freedom, I²₍₂₎ = the amount of variance explained at level 2 (records); I²₍₃₎ = the amount of variance explained at level 3 (studies);

^a= significant likelihood ratio test between level 2 and level 3 models, χ² = 7.98, df = 1, p = .005;

^b= significant likelihood ratio test between level 2 and level 3 models, χ² = 8.34, df = 1, p = .004;

^c= significant likelihood ratio test between level 2 and level 3 models, χ² = 20.92, df = 1, p < .001.

^*< .05,

^**< .01,

^***< .001.