Table 5.
Results of Moderator Analyses of all Effects, Effects Nested by Reports, and Effects without Outliers
| Variables | Misinformation | Debunking | Misinformation-Persistence | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| MEM | WMEM | MEM | MEM | WMEM | |
| All Effects | |||||
| Intercept | 3.17*** (0.42) | 3.07*** (0.45) | −0.74 (0.61) | 0.88* (0.39) | 1.08** (0.40) |
| Explanations in line with the Misinformation | −0.97** (0.33) | −0.98** (0.34) | −4.08*** (0.72) | 1.40* (0.58) | 2.09*** (0.62) |
| Counter-arguments to the Misinformation | n.a. | n.a. | 0.93*** (0.26) | −0.36 (0.24) | −0.68** (0.24) |
| Level of Detail of Debunking Messagea | n.a. | n.a. | 1.82** (0.64) | 0.86* (0.42) | 1.06* (0.43) |
| QM | 8.87** (14) | 8.30** (14) | 33.64*** (17) | 17.30*** (31) | 26.36*** (31) |
| τ2, I2 | 2.54 (0.96), 98.18 | 2.54 (0.96), 98.18 | 0.79 (0.26), 96.36 | 1.03 (0.26), 99.30 | 1.03 (0.26), 99.30 |
| R2 | 43.28 | 43.28 | 65.33 | 44.05 | 44.05 |
|
| |||||
| All Effects Nested by Reports | |||||
| Intercept | 3.17*** (0.42) | - | −0.74 (0.61) | 0.88* (0.39) | - |
| Explanations in line with the Misinformation | −0.97** (0.33) | - | −4.08*** (0.72) | 1.40* (0.58) | - |
| Counter-arguments to the Misinformation | n.a. | - | 0.93*** (0.26) | −0.36 (0.24) | - |
| Level of Detail of Debunking Messagea | n.a. | - | 1.82** (0.64) | 0.86* (0.42) | - |
| df | 8.87** (14) | - | 33.64*** (17) | 17.30*** (31) | - |
| τ2, I2 | 2.54 (0.96), 98.18 | - | 0.79 (0.26), 96.36 | 1.03 (0.26), 99.30 | - |
| R2 | 43.28 | - | 65.33 | 44.05 | - |
| Likelihood-Ratio Test (χ2, df) | −0.00, 1 | - | −0.00, 1 | −0.00, 1 | - |
|
| |||||
| Effects Without Outliers | |||||
| Intercept | 2.65*** (0.30) | 2.60*** (0.33) | - | 0.68** (0.23) | 0.72** (0.24) |
| Explanations in line with the Misinformation | −0.65** (0.23) | −0.64** (0.24) | - | 0.67† (0.35) | 0.82* (0.36) |
| Counter-arguments to the Misinformation | n.a. | n.a. | - | 0.09 (0.15) | 0.08 (0.15) |
| Level of Detail of Debunking Messagea | n.a. | n.a. | - | 0.51* (0.25) | 0.52* (0.25) |
| QM | 8.12** (12) | 6.84** (13) | - | 23.38*** (29) | 23.47*** (29) |
| τ2, I2 | 1.16 (0.46), 96.61 | 1.16 (0.46), 6.61 | - | 0.34 (0.09), 98.07 | 0.34 (0.09), 98.07 |
| R2 | 38.03 | 38.03 | - | 44.66 | 44.66 |
Note. Entries in the top panel correspond to unstandardized beta weights with standard errors between parentheses.
a
1 = labeling initial information as incorrect, 2 = providing new and credible information; QM = test of moderators (degree of freedom); τ2 = estimated amount of total heterogeneity (and standard error), I2 = level of between-sample heterogeneity; R2 = proportion of variance explained; MEM = Mixed-Effects Model; WMEM = Mixed-Effects Model weighted by standardized N residuals.
†
<.10,
*
< .05,
**
< .01,
***
<.001.