Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Environmental Health Perspectives logoLink to Environmental Health Perspectives
. 1999 Oct;107(Suppl 5):793–802. doi: 10.1289/ehp.99107s5793

Occupational exposure to crystalline silica and autoimmune disease.

C G Parks 1, K Conrad 1, G S Cooper 1
PMCID: PMC1566238  PMID: 10970168

Abstract

Occupational exposure to silica dust has been examined as a possible risk factor with respect to several systemic autoimmune diseases, including scleroderma, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and some of the small vessel vasculitidies with renal involvement (e.g., Wegener granulomatosis). Crystalline silica, or quartz, is an abundant mineral found in sand, rock, and soil. High-level exposure to respirable silica dust can cause chronic inflammation and fibrosis in the lung and other organs. Studies of specific occupational groups with high-level silica exposure (e.g., miners) have shown increased rates of autoimmune diseases compared to the expected rates in the general population. However, some clinic- and population-based studies have not demonstrated an association between silica exposure and risk of autoimmune diseases. This lack of effect may be due to the limited statistical power of these studies to examine this association or because the lower- or moderate-level exposures that may be more common in the general population were not considered. Experimental studies demonstrate that silica can act as an adjuvant to nonspecifically enhance the immune response. This is one mechanism by which silica might be involved in the development of autoimmune diseases. Given that several different autoimmune diseases may be associated with silica dust exposure, silica dust may act to promote or accelerate disease development, requiring some other factor to break immune tolerance or initiate autoimmunity. The specific manifestation of this effect may depend on underlying differences in genetic susceptibility or other environmental exposures.

Full text

PDF
793

Selected References

These references are in PubMed. This may not be the complete list of references from this article.

  1. Aho K., Kaipiainen-Seppänen O., Heliövaara M., Klaukka T. Epidemiology of rheumatoid arthritis in Finland. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 1998 Apr;27(5):325–334. doi: 10.1016/s0049-0172(98)80053-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Aikoh T., Tomokuni A., Matsukii T., Hyodoh F., Ueki H., Otsuki T., Ueki A. Activation-induced cell death in human peripheral blood lymphocytes after stimulation with silicate in vitro. Int J Oncol. 1998 Jun;12(6):1355–1359. doi: 10.3892/ijo.12.6.1355. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  3. Ambrus J. L., Jr, Sridhar N. R. Immunologic aspects of renal disease. JAMA. 1997 Dec 10;278(22):1938–1945. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Arnett F. C., Reveille J. D. Genetics of systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheum Dis Clin North Am. 1992 Nov;18(4):865–892. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  5. Bell D. A., Rigby R., Stiller C. R., Clark W. F., Harth M., Ebers G. HLA antigens in systemic lupus erythematosus: relationship to disease severity, age at onset, and sex. J Rheumatol. 1984 Aug;11(4):475–479. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Bevilacqua M. P., Pober J. S., Mendrick D. L., Cotran R. S., Gimbrone M. A., Jr Identification of an inducible endothelial-leukocyte adhesion molecule. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1987 Dec;84(24):9238–9242. doi: 10.1073/pnas.84.24.9238. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Bolton W. K., Suratt P. M., Strugill B. C. Rapidly progressive silicon nephropathy. Am J Med. 1981 Nov;71(5):823–828. doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(81)90374-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Bovenzi M., Barbone F., Betta A., Tommasini M., Versini W. Scleroderma and occupational exposure. Scand J Work Environ Health. 1995 Aug;21(4):289–292. doi: 10.5271/sjweh.40. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Brown D. F., McCall E. R., Piccolo B., Tripp V. W. Survey of effects of variety and growing location of cotton on cardroom dust composition. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J. 1977 Mar;38(3):107–115. doi: 10.1080/0002889778507922. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Brown L. M., Gridley G., Olsen J. H., Mellemkjaer L., Linet M. S., Fraumeni J. F., Jr Cancer risk and mortality patterns among silicotic men in Sweden and Denmark. J Occup Environ Med. 1997 Jul;39(7):633–638. doi: 10.1097/00043764-199707000-00008. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Burns C. J., Laing T. J., Gillespie B. W., Heeringa S. G., Alcser K. H., Mayes M. D., Wasko M. C., Cooper B. C., Garabrant D. H., Schottenfeld D. The epidemiology of scleroderma among women: assessment of risk from exposure to silicone and silica. J Rheumatol. 1996 Nov;23(11):1904–1911. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. CAPLAN A. Certain unusual radiological appearances in the chest of coal-miners suffering from rheumatoid arthritis. Thorax. 1953 Mar;8(1):29–37. doi: 10.1136/thx.8.1.29. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Calhoun W. J., Christman J. W., Ershler W. B., Graham W. G., Davis G. S. Raised immunoglobulin concentrations in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of healthy granite workers. Thorax. 1986 Apr;41(4):266–273. doi: 10.1136/thx.41.4.266. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Calvert G. M., Steenland K., Palu S. End-stage renal disease among silica-exposed gold miners. A new method for assessing incidence among epidemiologic cohorts. JAMA. 1997 Apr 16;277(15):1219–1223. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Castranova V., Vallyathan V., Ramsey D. M., McLaurin J. L., Pack D., Leonard S., Barger M. W., Ma J. Y., Dalal N. S., Teass A. Augmentation of pulmonary reactions to quartz inhalation by trace amounts of iron-containing particles. Environ Health Perspect. 1997 Sep;105 (Suppl 5):1319–1324. doi: 10.1289/ehp.97105s51319. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Catoggio L. J., Skinner R. P., Smith G., Maddison P. J. Systemic lupus erythematosus in the elderly: clinical and serological characteristics. J Rheumatol. 1984 Apr;11(2):175–181. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Conrad K., Levy Y., Blank M., Mehlhorn J., Frank K. H., Roch B., Shoenfeld Y. The pathogenic 16/6 idiotype in patients with silica associated systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and uranium miners with increased risk for development of SLE. J Rheumatol. 1998 Apr;25(4):660–666. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Conrad K., Levy Y., Blank M., Mehlhorn J., Frank K. H., Roch B., Shoenfeld Y. The pathogenic 16/6 idiotype in patients with silica associated systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) and uranium miners with increased risk for development of SLE. J Rheumatol. 1998 Apr;25(4):660–666. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Conrad K., Mehlhorn J., Lüthke K., Dörner T., Frank K. H. Systemic lupus erythematosus after heavy exposure to quartz dust in uranium mines: clinical and serological characteristics. Lupus. 1996 Feb;5(1):62–69. doi: 10.1177/096120339600500112. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  20. Cotch M. F., Hoffman G. S., Yerg D. E., Kaufman G. I., Targonski P., Kaslow R. A. The epidemiology of Wegener's granulomatosis. Estimates of the five-year period prevalence, annual mortality, and geographic disease distribution from population-based data sources. Arthritis Rheum. 1996 Jan;39(1):87–92. doi: 10.1002/art.1780390112. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. Cowie R. L. Silica-dust-exposed mine workers with scleroderma (systemic sclerosis). Chest. 1987 Aug;92(2):260–262. doi: 10.1378/chest.92.2.260. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  22. Danning C. L., Illei G. G., Boumpas D. T. Vasculitis associated with primary rheumatologic diseases. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 1998 Jan;10(1):58–65. doi: 10.1097/00002281-199801000-00009. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Davis G. S., Leslie K. O., Hemenway D. R. Silicosis in mice: effects of dose, time, and genetic strain. J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol. 1998;17(2):81–97. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Davis G. S., Pfeiffer L. M., Hemenway D. R. Persistent overexpression of interleukin-1beta and tumor necrosis factor-alpha in murine silicosis. J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol. 1998;17(2):99–114. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Doll N. J., Stankus R. P., Hughes J., Weill H., Gupta R. C., Rodriguez M., Jones R. N., Alspaugh M. A., Salvaggio J. E. Immune complexes and autoantibodies in silicosis. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 1981 Oct;68(4):281–285. doi: 10.1016/0091-6749(81)90152-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  26. Driscoll K. E., Carter J. M., Hassenbein D. G., Howard B. Cytokines and particle-induced inflammatory cell recruitment. Environ Health Perspect. 1997 Sep;105 (Suppl 5):1159–1164. doi: 10.1289/ehp.97105s51159. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  27. ERASMUS L. D. Scleroderma in goldminers on the Witwatersrand with particular reference to pulmonary manifestations. S Afr J Lab Clin Med. 1957 Sep;3(3):209–231. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Font J., Cervera R., Navarro M., Pallarés L., López-Soto A., Vivancos J., Ingelmo M. Systemic lupus erythematosus in men: clinical and immunological characteristics. Ann Rheum Dis. 1992 Sep;51(9):1050–1052. doi: 10.1136/ard.51.9.1050. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. Frank K. H., Füssel M., Conrad K., Rihs H. P., Koch R., Gebhardt B., Mehlhorn J. Different distribution of HLA class II and tumor necrosis factor alleles (TNF-308.2, TNFa2 microsatellite) in anti-topoisomerase I responders among scleroderma patients with and without exposure to quartz/metal dust. Arthritis Rheum. 1998 Jul;41(7):1306–1311. doi: 10.1002/1529-0131(199807)41:7<1306::AID-ART22>3.0.CO;2-V. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Friedetzky A., Garn H., Kirchner A., Gemsa D. Histopathological changes in enlarged thoracic lymph nodes during the development of silicosis in rats. Immunobiology. 1998 Jul;199(1):119–132. doi: 10.1016/S0171-2985(98)80068-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Goldsmith J. R., Goldsmith D. F. Fiberglass or silica exposure and increased nephritis or ESRD (end-stage renal disease). Am J Ind Med. 1993 Jun;23(6):873–881. doi: 10.1002/ajim.4700230605. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Gong H., Jr, Tashkin D. P. Silicosis due to intentional inhalation of abrasive scouring powder. Case report with long-term survival and vasculitic sequelae. Am J Med. 1979 Aug;67(2):358–362. doi: 10.1016/0002-9343(79)90415-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Green F. H., Yoshida K., Fick G., Paul J., Hugh A., Green W. F. Characterization of airborne mineral dusts associated with farming activities in rural Alberta, Canada. Int Arch Occup Environ Health. 1990;62(6):423–430. doi: 10.1007/BF00379058. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Gregorini G., Ferioli A., Donato F., Tira P., Morassi L., Tardanico R., Lancini L., Maiorca R. Association between silica exposure and necrotizing crescentic glomerulonephritis with p-ANCA and anti-MPO antibodies: a hospital-based case-control study. Adv Exp Med Biol. 1993;336:435–440. doi: 10.1007/978-1-4757-9182-2_77. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Gregorini G., Tira P., Frizza J., D'Haese P. C., Elseviers M. M., Nuyts G., Maiorca R., De Broe M. E. ANCA-associated diseases and silica exposure. Clin Rev Allergy Immunol. 1997 Spring;15(1):21–40. doi: 10.1007/BF02828275. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Guthrie G. D., Jr Mineral properties and their contributions to particle toxicity. Environ Health Perspect. 1997 Sep;105 (Suppl 5):1003–1011. doi: 10.1289/ehp.97105s51003. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Hashimoto H., Tsuda H., Hirano T., Takasaki Y., Matsumoto T., Hirose S. Differences in clinical and immunological findings of systemic lupus erythematosus related to age. J Rheumatol. 1987 Jun;14(3):497–501. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  38. Haustein U. F., Anderegg U. Silica induced scleroderma--clinical and experimental aspects. J Rheumatol. 1998 Oct;25(10):1917–1926. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Hochberg M. C. Systemic lupus erythematosus. Rheum Dis Clin North Am. 1990 Aug;16(3):617–639. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Jacobson D. L., Gange S. J., Rose N. R., Graham N. M. Epidemiology and estimated population burden of selected autoimmune diseases in the United States. Clin Immunol Immunopathol. 1997 Sep;84(3):223–243. doi: 10.1006/clin.1997.4412. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Jennette J. C. Antineutrophil cytoplasmic autoantibody-associated diseases: a pathologist's perspective. Am J Kidney Dis. 1991 Aug;18(2):164–170. doi: 10.1016/s0272-6386(12)80874-2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Jonsson H., Nived O., Sturfelt G. The effect of age on clinical and serological manifestations in unselected patients with systemic lupus erythematosus. J Rheumatol. 1988 Mar;15(3):505–509. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Kaufman L. D., Gomez-Reino J. J., Heinicke M. H., Gorevic P. D. Male lupus: retrospective analysis of the clinical and laboratory features of 52 patients, with a review of the literature. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 1989 Feb;18(3):189–197. doi: 10.1016/0049-0172(89)90061-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  44. Keast D., Sheppard N., Nguyen D. T. Adjuvant activity of respirable iron ore dust. Immunol Cell Biol. 1989 Jun;67(Pt 3):161–168. doi: 10.1038/icb.1989.26. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  45. Klockars M., Koskela R. S., Järvinen E., Kolari P. J., Rossi A. Silica exposure and rheumatoid arthritis: a follow up study of granite workers 1940-81. Br Med J (Clin Res Ed) 1987 Apr 18;294(6578):997–1000. doi: 10.1136/bmj.294.6578.997. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Koeger A. C., Alcaix D., Rozenberg S., Bourgeois P. Graves' disease after silica dust exposure. J Rheumatol. 1996 Jan;23(1):202–202. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  47. Koeger A. C., Lang T., Alcaix D., Milleron B., Rozenberg S., Chaibi P., Arnaud J., Mayaud C., Camus J. P., Bourgeois P. Silica-associated connective tissue disease. A study of 24 cases. Medicine (Baltimore) 1995 Sep;74(5):221–237. doi: 10.1097/00005792-199509000-00001. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Koh E. T., Boey M. L. Late onset lupus: a clinical and immunological study in a predominantly Chinese population. J Rheumatol. 1994 Aug;21(8):1463–1467. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  49. Koskela R. S., Klockars M., Järvinen E. Mortality and disability among cotton mill workers. Br J Ind Med. 1990 Jun;47(6):384–391. doi: 10.1136/oem.47.6.384. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. LaDou J. The export of environmental responsibility. Arch Environ Health. 1994 Jan-Feb;49(1):6–8. doi: 10.1080/00039896.1994.9934408. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Leigh J., Wang H., Bonin A., Peters M., Ruan X. Silica-induced apoptosis in alveolar and granulomatous cells in vivo. Environ Health Perspect. 1997 Sep;105 (Suppl 5):1241–1245. doi: 10.1289/ehp.97105s51241. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Levine S., Sowinski R. Enhancement of allergic encephalomyelitis by particulate adjuvants inoculated long before antigen. Am J Pathol. 1980 May;99(2):291–304. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Linch K. D., Miller W. E., Althouse R. B., Groce D. W., Hale J. M. Surveillance of respirable crystalline silica dust using OSHA compliance data (1979-1995). Am J Ind Med. 1998 Dec;34(6):547–558. doi: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0274(199812)34:6<547::aid-ajim2>3.0.co;2-b. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Lippmann M., Eckert H. L., Hahon N., Morgan W. K. Circulating antinuclear and rheumatoid factors in coal miners. A prevalence study in Pennsylvania and West Virginia. Ann Intern Med. 1973 Dec;79(6):807–811. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-79-6-807. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Liu M. Z. The health investigation of cotton textile workers in Beijing. Am J Ind Med. 1987;12(6):759–764. doi: 10.1002/ajim.4700120615. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  56. Lorber M., Gershwin M. E., Shoenfeld Y. The coexistence of systemic lupus erythematosus with other autoimmune diseases: the kaleidoscope of autoimmunity. Semin Arthritis Rheum. 1994 Oct;24(2):105–113. doi: 10.1016/s0049-0172(05)80004-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Masson C., Audran M., Pascaretti C., Chevailler A., Subra J. F., Tuchais E., Kahn M. F. Silica-associated systemic erythematosus lupus or mineral dust lupus? Lupus. 1997;6(1):1–3. doi: 10.1177/096120339700600101. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Matsuoka Y., Tomita M., Yoshino I., Hosoda Y. [Relationship between autoimmune diseases and pneumoconiosis]. Sangyo Igaku. 1992 Sep;34(5):421–431. doi: 10.1539/joh1959.34.421. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  59. McCurdy S. A., Ferguson T. J., Goldsmith D. F., Parker J. E., Schenker M. B. Respiratory health of California rice farmers. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996 May;153(5):1553–1559. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.153.5.8630601. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Mossman B. T., Churg A. Mechanisms in the pathogenesis of asbestosis and silicosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998 May;157(5 Pt 1):1666–1680. doi: 10.1164/ajrccm.157.5.9707141. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Naim J. O., van Oss C. J., Wu W., Giese R. F., Nickerson P. A. Mechanisms of adjuvancy: I--Metal oxides as adjuvants. Vaccine. 1997 Aug;15(11):1183–1193. doi: 10.1016/s0264-410x(97)00016-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Nieuwenhuijsen M. J., Kruize H., Schenker M. B. Exposure to dust and its particle size distribution in California agriculture. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J. 1998 Jan;59(1):34–38. doi: 10.1080/15428119891010316. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Norboo T., Angchuk P. T., Yahya M., Kamat S. R., Pooley F. D., Corrin B., Kerr I. H., Bruce N., Ball K. P. Silicosis in a Himalayan village population: role of environmental dust. Thorax. 1991 May;46(5):341–343. doi: 10.1136/thx.46.5.341. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Nowack R., Flores-Suárez L. F., van der Woude F. J. New developments in pathogenesis of systemic vasculitis. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 1998 Jan;10(1):3–11. doi: 10.1097/00002281-199801000-00002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Nuyts G. D., Van Vlem E., De Vos A., Daelemans R. A., Rorive G., Elseviers M. M., Schurgers M., Segaert M., D'Haese P. C., De Broe M. E. Wegener granulomatosis is associated to exposure to silicon compounds: a case-control study. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 1995;10(7):1162–1165. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  66. Otsuki T., Sakaguchi H., Tomokuni A., Aikoh T., Matsuki T., Kawakami Y., Kusaka M., Ueki H., Kita S., Ueki A. Soluble Fas mRNA is dominantly expressed in cases with silicosis. Immunology. 1998 Jun;94(2):258–262. doi: 10.1046/j.1365-2567.1998.00509.x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. PERNIS B., PARONETTO F. Adjuvant effect of silica (tridymite) on antibody production. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1962 Jun;110:390–392. doi: 10.3181/00379727-110-27527. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  68. Popendorf W., Donham K. J., Easton D. N., Silk J. A synopsis of agricultural respiratory hazards. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J. 1985 Mar;46(3):154–161. doi: 10.1080/15298668591394572. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Puisieux F., Hachulla E., Brouillard M., Hatron P. Y., Devulder B. Silicose et syndrome de Gougerot-Sjögren primitif. Rev Med Interne. 1994;15(9):575–579. doi: 10.1016/s0248-8663(05)82502-0. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Rafnsson V., Ingimarsson O., Hjalmarsson I., Gunnarsdottir H. Association between exposure to crystalline silica and risk of sarcoidosis. Occup Environ Med. 1998 Oct;55(10):657–660. doi: 10.1136/oem.55.10.657. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Reveille J. D. The genetic contribution to the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 1998 May;10(3):187–200. doi: 10.1097/00002281-199805000-00007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Rodnan G. P., Benedek T. G., Medsger T. A., Jr, Cammarata R. J. The association of progressive systemic sclerosis (scleroderma) with coal miners' pneumoconiosis and other forms of silicosis. Ann Intern Med. 1967 Feb;66(2):323–334. doi: 10.7326/0003-4819-66-2-323. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Rosenman K. D., Moore-Fuller M., Reilly M. J. Connective tissue disease and silicosis. Am J Ind Med. 1999 Apr;35(4):375–381. doi: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0274(199904)35:4<375::aid-ajim8>3.0.co;2-i. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Rosenman K. D., Zhu Z. Pneumoconiosis and associated medical conditions. Am J Ind Med. 1995 Jan;27(1):107–113. doi: 10.1002/ajim.4700270110. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  75. Rybicki B. A., Johnson C. C., Peterson E. L., Kortsha G. X., Gorell J. M. Comparability of different methods of retrospective exposure assessment of metals in manufacturing industries. Am J Ind Med. 1997 Jan;31(1):36–43. doi: 10.1002/(sici)1097-0274(199701)31:1<36::aid-ajim6>3.0.co;2-v. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  76. Sanchez-Roman J., Wichmann I., Salaberri J., Varela J. M., Nuñez-Roldan A. Multiple clinical and biological autoimmune manifestations in 50 workers after occupational exposure to silica. Ann Rheum Dis. 1993 Jul;52(7):534–538. doi: 10.1136/ard.52.7.534. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. Sarih M., Souvannavong V., Brown S. C., Adam A. Silica induces apoptosis in macrophages and the release of interleukin-1 alpha and interleukin-1 beta. J Leukoc Biol. 1993 Nov;54(5):407–413. doi: 10.1002/jlb.54.5.407. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. Silman A. J., Jones S. What is the contribution of occupational environmental factors to the occurrence of scleroderma in men? Ann Rheum Dis. 1992 Dec;51(12):1322–1324. doi: 10.1136/ard.51.12.1322. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  79. Slavin R. E., Swedo J. L., Brandes D., Gonzalez-Vitale J. C., Osornio-Vargas A. Extrapulmonary silicosis: a clinical, morphologic, and ultrastructural study. Hum Pathol. 1985 Apr;16(4):393–412. doi: 10.1016/s0046-8177(85)80233-1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. Sluis-Cremer G. K., Hessel P. A., Hnizdo E., Churchill A. R. Relationship between silicosis and rheumatoid arthritis. Thorax. 1986 Aug;41(8):596–601. doi: 10.1136/thx.41.8.596. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  81. Sluis-Cremer G. K., Hessel P. A., Nizdo E. H., Churchill A. R., Zeiss E. A. Silica, silicosis, and progressive systemic sclerosis. Br J Ind Med. 1985 Dec;42(12):838–843. doi: 10.1136/oem.42.12.838. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  82. Steen V. D., Oddis C. V., Conte C. G., Janoski J., Casterline G. Z., Medsger T. A., Jr Incidence of systemic sclerosis in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania. A twenty-year study of hospital-diagnosed cases, 1963-1982. Arthritis Rheum. 1997 Mar;40(3):441–445. doi: 10.1002/art.1780400309. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  83. Steenland K., Brown D. Mortality study of gold miners exposed to silica and nonasbestiform amphibole minerals: an update with 14 more years of follow-up. Am J Ind Med. 1995 Feb;27(2):217–229. doi: 10.1002/ajim.4700270207. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  84. Steenland K., Goldsmith D. F. Silica exposure and autoimmune diseases. Am J Ind Med. 1995 Nov;28(5):603–608. doi: 10.1002/ajim.4700280505. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  85. Steenland N. K., Thun M. J., Ferguson C. W., Port F. K. Occupational and other exposures associated with male end-stage renal disease: a case/control study. Am J Public Health. 1990 Feb;80(2):153–157. doi: 10.2105/ajph.80.2.153. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  86. Suratt P. M., Winn W. C., Jr, Brody A. R., Bolton W. K., Giles R. D. Acute silicosis in tombstone sandblasters. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1977 Mar;115(3):521–529. doi: 10.1164/arrd.1977.115.3.521. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  87. Tervaert J. W., Stegeman C. A., Kallenberg C. G. Silicon exposure and vasculitis. Curr Opin Rheumatol. 1998 Jan;10(1):12–17. doi: 10.1097/00002281-199801000-00003. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  88. Theofilopoulos A. N., Kono D. H. Mechanisms and genetics of autoimmunity. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1998 May 13;841:225–235. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1998.tb10932.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  89. Uber C. L., McReynolds R. A. Immunotoxicology of silica. Crit Rev Toxicol. 1982 Oct;10(4):303–319. doi: 10.3109/10408448209003370. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  90. Ueki A., Yamaguchi M., Ueki H., Watanabe Y., Ohsawa G., Kinugawa K., Kawakami Y., Hyodoh F. Polyclonal human T-cell activation by silicate in vitro. Immunology. 1994 Jun;82(2):332–335. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  91. Vallyathan V., Shi X., Castranova V. Reactive oxygen species: their relation to pneumoconiosis and carcinogenesis. Environ Health Perspect. 1998 Oct;106 (Suppl 5):1151–1155. doi: 10.1289/ehp.98106s51151. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  92. Wakelyn P. J., Greenblatt G. A., Brown D. F., Tripp V. W. Chemical properties of cotton dust. Am Ind Hyg Assoc J. 1976 Jan;37(1):22–31. doi: 10.1080/0002889768507403. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  93. Ward M. M., Studenski S. Systemic lupus erythematosus in men: a multivariate analysis of gender differences in clinical manifestations. J Rheumatol. 1990 Feb;17(2):220–224. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  94. Watts R. A., Scott D. G. Classification and epidemiology of the vasculitides. Baillieres Clin Rheumatol. 1997 May;11(2):191–217. doi: 10.1016/s0950-3579(97)80043-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  95. Weiss N. S., Liff J. M. Accounting for the multicausal nature of disease in the design and analysis of epidemiologic studies. Am J Epidemiol. 1983 Jan;117(1):14–18. doi: 10.1093/oxfordjournals.aje.a113509. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  96. Wichmann I., Sanchez-Roman J., Morales J., Castillo M. J., Ocaña C., Nuñez-Roldan A. Antimyeloperoxidase antibodies in individuals with occupational exposure to silica. Ann Rheum Dis. 1996 Mar;55(3):205–207. doi: 10.1136/ard.55.3.205. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  97. Wilson H. A., Hamilton M. E., Spyker D. A., Brunner C. M., o'Brien W. M., Davis J. S., 4th, Winfield J. B. Age influences the clinical and serologic expression of systemic lupus erythematosus. Arthritis Rheum. 1981 Oct;24(10):1230–1235. doi: 10.1002/art.1780241002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Articles from Environmental Health Perspectives are provided here courtesy of National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences

RESOURCES