Potentiality of homestead agroforestry for achieving sustainable development goals: Bangladesh perspectives

Abstract

Homestead agroforestry is one of the recognized agroforestry practices in Bangladesh. While the monoculture cropping system is enormously intensified, homestead agroforestry has added dimension to rapid economic growth. But despite having significance, homestead agroforestry is not gaining concern in further development. The study was done to bring this topic into focus by compiling the prospects of homestead agroforestry in Bangladesh by highlighting the significance and necessity. A secondary analysis was done by reviewing the findings to do this research. To collect paper keywords, “Bangladesh homestead agroforestry”, “Homestead agroforestry practices”, “Homestead agroforestry status”, “Homestead biodiversity’', “Homestead and SDGs,” “Dominant species,” and “Home garden agroforestry system” were entered. Following the PRISMA framework, 337 papers were collected, among which 113 met the inclusion or eligibility criteria. The interrelated publications of homestead agroforestry with SDGs were assessed from the 113 shortlisted articles. The interrelated publications assessment on homestead agroforestry in the context of Sustainable Development Goals figured out that major research output was oriented towards no poverty (44%), decent work and economic growth (27%), zero hunger (20%), indicating its link to achieve SDGs from Bangladesh perspectives. The shortlisted articles were reviewed in the context of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), food security, livelihood improvement, environmental resources conservation, and dominant species coverage. Consequently, the dominant species were tabulated along with their respective coverages according to their uses. The study identified that in all localities of Bangladesh, Mango, Areca, Coconut, and Mahogany are the highly preferred dominant species, while Jackfruit, Acacia, and Banana also prevailed. Hence, the study concluded that homestead agroforestry has significant prospects in food security, livelihood improvement, and environmental resources conservation, and its contribution to achieving Sustainable Development Goals cannot be ignored. But homestead agroforestry system is exposed to vulnerability due to constraints. The systematic elimination of prevailing constraints can help in successfully executing sustainable development goals, and fruitful consequences can be derived by imposing potential concerns on this sector.

1. Introduction

Bangladesh has become self-sufficient in food production. The geographical position, climatic conditions, and arable land have made Bangladesh a vibrant economy. The geographical location of Bangladesh is between 20.34′ & 26.38′ north latitudes and 88.01′ & 92.41′ east latitudes of South Asia. The average temperature ranges between 11° and 20° during winter whereas 21°–38° during summer. The subtropical monsoon is the climatic characteristic where rainfall ranges between 1100 mm and 3400 mm from June to August. According to World Bank data, 38% of total employment is from the agriculture sector [1]. Agriculture is the primary employment sector for a maximum number of people, where maximum land is utilized for agricultural production. In the era of the 21st century, addressing Sustainable Development Goals is mandatory through which the progress of a country can be measured. The agriculture sector triggered the accomplishment of such goals. According to the report of the Bangladesh Bureau of Statistics 2020, 13.02% of the GDP of the country is contributed by the agriculture sector, and it is recognized as a productive sector in the economy as 87% of rural people directly or indirectly rely upon agriculture (BBS report, 2020). The rural economy is dependent upon this sector for food security. People are intimately connected with crop production as well as forestry practices. The forest and its natural resources provide food, timber, fuels, and fodder. Meanwhile, ecological functions of carbon storage, wildlife habitat maintenance, and environmental resource protection are also carried out by forests. But the agriculture sector is vulnerable due to population problems, deforestation, and natural hazards. Every year certain localities of Bangladesh undergo natural disasters such as floods, hailstorms, soil erosion, landslide, heavy rain, drought, etc. People are exposed to diseases and malnutrition, still living below the poverty line, and are hungry. In response to this vulnerable situation, agroforestry is a potential sector that can effectively respond. While monoculture is commonly preferred by farmers who deal only with a mono-cropping pattern, agroforestry joins two dominant aspects of tree and crop cultivation on the same land with or without animals. Agroforestry has the potential to improve living standards through poverty elimination [2]. The appropriate management practices of agroforestry can respond to climate change and acts as a mitigation option for climate change [3]. The opportunity for greater output becomes broadened by adopting homestead agroforestry. While home gardens occupy 0.88 million hectares of land, rural areas' home gardens occupy 0.81 million hectares, with 11% occupied for the plantation of vegetables [4]. Consequently, such areas and practices enlarge the beneficiary output by providing fuel, wood or timber, fruit-bearing plants, medicinal plants, non-timber products, and forages with significant economic value. As a result, homestead agroforestry fulfills the objectives of food security and cash return, nutritional security, environmental sustainability, and positive climatic action. In developing countries like Bangladesh, homestead agroforestry has added new dimensions to food and nutrition security and poverty alleviation by creating the opportunity for income generation, inequalities reduction, and execution of women empowerment. At the same time, the natural agroforestry offered by homesteads has the potential to protect natural habitats or lives on land, such as plant biodiversity, and store carbon, thereby protecting the environment from greenhouse gas emissions and saving the climate. As a result, people can lead a healthy life, and developing countries like Bangladesh can move towards achieving Sustainable Development Goals. Despite the economic significance, homestead agroforestry is an underrated topic beyond the focus and concerns. Most empirical studies identified the existing species without explaining the potential prospects for Sustainable Goals Development Achievement. Again, most of the studies identified farmers' barriers in homestead production practice and recommended possible strategies to upgrade this sector. Hence, the study’s objective was to address homestead agroforestry prospects in the context of Bangladesh. The prospects were figured out in a significant dimension by reviewing published information regarding homestead agroforestry. Through secondary qualitative research, the study aimed to address the significant aspects in the context of Bangladesh to achieve Sustainable Development Goals effectively. We overviewed the scope of homestead agroforestry towards sustainable development targets. This study’s primary objective was to identify homestead agroforestry’s potential in achieving Sustainable Development Goals in Bangladesh. Besides, the paper aimed to figure out the link of homestead agroforestry to food security, livelihood improvement, and environmental resources conservation from Bangladesh’s perspective. Dominant species and coverage of various species prioritized by farmers for production on homesteads assessment was another focus to determine the preference for major species among farmers in multiple localities. Consequently, the study aimed to determine constraints that hinder the efficient adoption of homestead agroforestry practice and identify recommended strategies to improve the homestead agroforestry system. This study comprises contribution to policy implications as it can help in figuring out all favorable prospects of homestead agroforestry that can add value to the implementation of Sustainable Development Goals by acting as a policy option. The implications of policies in terms of minimizing existing constraints and executing recommended strategies can bring out the welfare of rural farmers. The study highlighted synergies between Sustainable Development Goals and the food system, livelihood improvement, and protection of natural resources.

2. Methodology

2.1. Article search and inclusion

Sources of information were collected from online electronic journal databases of Google Scholar, Scopus, and Web of Science to proceed with the review. The content search was carried out by searching key phrases of the review topic. Key terms “Bangladesh homestead agroforestry,” “Homestead agroforestry practices,” “Homestead agroforestry status,” “Homestead biodiversity”, “Homestead and SDGs,” “Dominant species,” and “Home garden agroforestry system” were entered. Initially, all articles collected from respective online databases were listed in an excel file with their title. The total number of identified articles was 337. In the next step, duplicate articles were removed and marked excluded, were 100 in number, and a list of recorded 237 papers was screened. A systematic approach undertook the proceeding of reviewing 237 articles. A set of eligibility criteria (Table 1) was determined, and articles were excluded based on eligibility criteria.

Table 1.

Eligibility criteria for articles inclusion.

Criterion	Inclusion Eligibility	Exclusion criteria
Literature type	Research article	Book, review, conference/seminar/workshop paper
Text availability	Full text	Text unavailability
Language	English	Not in English
Paper quality	Non-predatory, original article	Predatory
Study region relevancy	Bangladesh	Not relevant to Bangladesh
Relevant article to the research topic	Comprehensive	Non-comprehensive

The articles, mainly book chapters, review papers, conference or workshop or seminar papers, full text unavailable, not in English, published in a predatory journal, not relevant to the study region, and irrelevant to the research topic, were excluded. The total number of excluded articles was 124 based on eligibility criteria. Such criteria were used in article selection in previous studies [5,6]. A total number of 113 articles were selected and forwarded for further qualitative analysis. The detailed methodology of the PRISMA framework of article selection is depicted in figure.

2.2. Article analysis

From the shortlisted 113 articles, the interrelated publications in the context of SDGs were assessed (Table 2) based on sustainable development goals. Later, a comprehensive review regarding the potentiality of homestead agroforestry was conducted from shortlisted articles in the context of the implementation of SDGs, food security, livelihood improvement, and environmental resources conservation was made from shortlisted articles. The dominant species and coverage according to various usage were also tabulated from the literature (Table 4). The frequency of species was categorized into three levels: low (frequency below 5), moderate (frequency ranging between 5 and 10), and high (frequency greater than 10) to analyze dominancy levels in terms of their frequency determined in different localities (Table 5). Again, the division-wise frequency of the dominant species was also determined (Table 6). Finally, the constraints and recommended strategies from the literature were reviewed structurally. All the analyses were done using SPSS software and MS excel. Data were systematically reviewed considering historical and updated referenced papers to determine the potential contribution to achieving Sustainable Development Goals and targets. Data were presented in tables and relevant figures.

Table 2.

The assessed interrelated publications of homestead agroforestry in the context of sustainable development goals.

SDGs	Publications number (%)
No Poverty	50 (44)
Zero Hunger	23 (20)
Good Health and Well being	14 (12)
Quality Education	0 (0)
Gender Equality	6 (5)
Clean Water and Sanitation	1 (1)
Affordable and Clean Energy	20 (18)
Decent Work and Economic Growth	31 (27)
Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure	0 (0)
Reduced Inequalities	9 (8)
Sustainable Cities and Communities	4 (4)
Reasonable Consumption and Production	13 (12)
Climate Action	19 (17)
Life Below water	1 (1)
Life on Land	15 (13)
Peace, Justice, and Strong Institution	2 (2)
Partnership for Goals	0 (0)

Table 4.

Dominant coverage of plant species in homesteads of various localities.

Dominant Species	Located Region	Division	Species Coverage or function (%)	References
Coconut, Betel nut, Guava, Banana, Papaya, Date palm, Mango, Mahogany, Raintree, Sada koroi, Teak	Sandwip	Chattogram	Fruit-23 Vegetables-22 Timber-17 Fuelwood-15 Medicinal-11 Ornamental-8 Spice-4	[7]
Acacia, Jackfruit, Coconut, Mango, Teak	Bandarban	Chattogram	MPTS-37 Fruits 13 timber-13 Fruits and medicinal-20	[8]
Areca, Coconut, Mango, Bamboo sp., Alocasia indica, Jackfruit, Date palm, Citrus, Sofeda, Papaya, Drumstick, Turmeric, Plum	Kalaroa, Satkhira	Khulna	Woody and non-woody- 15.55 Multipurpose-13.33 Self-consumption- 64 Commercial-9 Self-consumption & commercial-27	[9]
Betel nut, Jackfruit, Mango	Rajshahi	Rajshahi	Fruit-33 Timber-24 Firewood-16 Vegetables-9 Spices-4 Medicinal-6 Ornamental-8	[10]
Betelnut, bamboo, Mango, Banana, Coconut, Fig, Acacia, Eucalyptus,	Teknaf Peninsula, Cox’s Bazar	Chattogram	Not mentioned	[11]
Alocasia indica, Xanthosoma nigrum, Colocasia nymphaepholia, Turmeric, Citrus limon, Mango, Jackfruit, Date palm, Musa sp., Areca, Coconut, Hog Plum, Black plum, Mahogany, Raintree, Giant bamboo	Bagerhat, Satkhira, Khulna, Faridpur, Chuadanga, Jessore	Khulna	Food-36 Medicinal-27 Fuelwood-22 Ornamental-19 Timber-11 Fodder-8 Fiber-1.5 Ceremonial-1	[12]
Raintree, Mango, Banana species, Coconut, Betel nut	Khulna, Jessore Bagerhat, Satkhira, Chuadanga, Faridpur	Khulna	Not mentioned	[13]
Coconut, Areca, Simul, Mandar	Sudharam, Noakhali	Chattogram	Not mentioned	[14]
Betelnut, Mahogany, Akashmoni, Raintree, Turmeric, Spinach, Papaya, Chili, Aroid	Nakla, Sherpuur	Mymensingh	Timber −28.85 Fruit −36.54 Medicinal- 11.53 Fodder −11.53 Ornamental- 7.69 Others −3.85	[15]
Jackfruit, Mango, mahogany, Coconut, Teak, Guava, Litchi	Gazipur district	Dhaka	Horticultural-65.12 Timber & fuelwood −34.88	[16]
Betel nut, Velvety apple, Mango, Coconut, Jackfruit, Guava, Mahogany, Raintree, Raj koroi, Katbadam	Bhola, Borguna, Patuakhali	Barisal	Timber-53.62 Fruit-46.38	[17]
Acacia, Eucalyptus, Jackfruit, Neem, Datura, Basok, Betelnut, Coconut, Mango, Bokain, Greengram, Gamar, chili, Jute, Bitter gourd, Bottle gourd	Gobadia, Mymensingh	Mymensingh	Fruit-21.74 Vegetable-28.26 Crop-17.39 Timber-13.04 Medicinal-13.04 Fuel-6.52	[18]
Bamboo, Mango, Betel nut, Date palm, Jackfruit, Neem, Coconut	Naogaon	Rajshahi	Timber-51.79 Fruit-35.71 Fuelwood-19.64	[19]
Acacia, Betel nut, Musa sp.	Lakshmipur and Narsingdi	Dhaka	Timber-44.26 Fruits-55.74	[20]
Banana, Betel nut, Jackfruit, Mango, Mahogany, Teak, Acacia, Bamboo species	Mymensingh (Bhaluka, Mymensing sadar, Fulbaria, Muktagacha)	Mymensingh	Woody perennial-53.09 Vegetable −46.91	[21]
Mango, Jackfruit, Papaya, Coconut, Acacia hybrid, Mahogany, Coriander, Areca, Tulsi, Neem, Bamboo, Pudina, Bohera	Kamalganj, Moulvibazar	Sylhet	Timber-25.55 Fruit-26.28 Vegetable-32.85 Medicinal and other-15.33	[22]
Akashmoni, Jackfruit, Coconut, Mango, Neem, Eucalyptus, Bokain, Betelnut, Jujube	Madhupur, Tangail	Dhaka	Not mentioned	[23]
Jackfruit, Acacia, Mango, Mahogany, Eucalyptus, Papaya, Plum, wood apple	Gopalpur, Tangail	Dhaka	Timber-51.13 Fruit-21.05 Medicinal-26.32	[24]
Betel leaf, Betel nut, Pineapple, Ginger, Turmeric	Jaintiapur, Sylhet	Sylhet	Timber −22.05 Horticultural-32.35 Annual crop-19.12 Spice-10.29 Medicinal- 8.82 Bamboo- 7.35	[25]
Mango, kochu, Mahogany, Sajna, Areca, Turmeric, Ginger	Domar, Nilphamari	Rangpur	Fruits-37 Timber-23 Medicinal-17 Vegetable and spice-15 Ornamental-8	[26]
Jackfruit, Guava, Jujube, Litchi, Bamboo, Mango, Coconut, Areca, Mahogany, Teak, Silk tree, Acacia, Kadam	Gazipur sadar, Gazipur	Dhaka	Fruit-45.3 Bamboo- 29.5 Timber-25.2	[27]
Guava, Coconut, Mango, Raintree, Mahogany, Banana, Sajna, Neem	Keshabpur and chaugachha, Jessore	Khulna	Food-71 Fuelwood-18 Timber-17 Ornamental-5 Fodder-3	[28]
Coconut, Giant Bamboo, Betel nut, Mahogany, Bengal bamboo	Bagerhat sadar, Bagerhat	Khulna	Fruit-47.6 Timber-29.6 Bamboo-22.7	[29]
Betel nut, Jackfruit, Lemon, Coconut, Mango, silk koroi, Kala koroi, Rain tree	Sandwip, Chattogram	Chattogram	Fruit-57.58 Timber-42.42	[30]
Akashmoni, Neem, Mahogany, Mango, Eucalyptus, Jackfruit, Wood Apple, Bamboo, Ipil Ipil, Mandar, Sissoo	Gopalpur, Tangail	Dhaka	Timber-29.34 Fruit-32 Medicinal-17.34 Fodder-10.66	[31]
Betel nut, Hog Plum, Coconut, Pomegranate, Acacia, Mahogany, Raintree	Chhagalnaiya, Feni	Chattogram	Fruit-58.97 Timber-41.03	[32]
Mango, Mahogany, Earleaf acacia, Papaya, Litchi, Wood apple, Banana, Drumstick, Hori Toki	Bandarban and Rangamati	Chattogram	Not mentioned	[33]
Citrus	Barlekha, Moulvibazar	Sylhet	Timber-34.09 Fruit-31.09 Agar-18.14 Citrus-12.63 Medicinal-3 Aesthetic-1.05	[34]
Mango, Mahogany, Coconut, Jackfruit, Date palm, Banana, Papaya, Sweet gourd	Rajshahi	Rajshahi	Not mentioned	[35]
Mango, Jackfruit, Neem, Musa spp., Mahogany	Takhurgao sadar, Baliadangi, Thakurgaon	Rangpur	Not mentioned	[36]
Jackfruit, Eucalyptus, Ipil ipil, Neem, Mango, Mahogany	Natore	Rajshahi	Not mentioned	[37]
Betel nut, Coconut, Mango, Banana, Giant taro, Jackfruit, citrus, Turmeric, Drumstick, Date palm, Papaya, Jam, Sofeda	Kalaroa, Satkhira	Khulna	(Woody & non-woody) Climbers 15 Tree - 40 Herb −25 Shrub-20 Self-consumption-15 Self-consumption & commercial −27	[38]
Acacia, Teak, Gamar, Mahogany, Mango, Jam, Chili, Jackfruit, Guava, Betel nut, Durba grass, Neem, Thankuni, Tulsi, Pineapple, Banana, Citrus, Papaya, Ginger, Turmeric, Onion, Brinjal, Red amaranth	Durgapur, Netrokona	Mymensingh	Food-12.86 Fruits-21.43 Energy producing-17.14 Timber-15.71 Medicinal- 32.86	[39]
Coconut, Mahogany, Brinjal, Bottle gourd	Ajmirigonj, Habigonj	Sylhet	Fruits-33.33 Timber-28.57 Summer vegetable-22.62 Winter vegetables-15.48	[40]
Jackfruit, Mango, Mahogany, Betel nut, Bead tree, Eucalyptus	Rangpur	Rangpur	Not mentioned	[41]
Coconut, Mango, Betelnut, Banana, Jujube, Mahogany, Neem, Sweet gourd, Country bean, Chili	Noakhali	Chattogram	Fruits-30.9 Timber-29.09 Vegetables-34.54 Spices-5.45	[42]
Coconut, Mango, Jujube, Banana, Betel nut, Papaya, Guava	Ajmiriganj, Habiganj	Sylhet	Not mentioned	[43]
Coconut, betel nut, Tamarind, Mango, Raintree, Lemon, Pummelo, night queen, Ginger, Turmeric	Kishoreganj	Dhaka	Fruit & food −45 Medicinal - 38.71 Firewood - 32.26 Timber - 29	[44]
Betel nut, Mango, Jackfruit, Coconut	Teknaf, Cox’s bazar	Chattogram	Not mentioned	[45]

Table 5.

Most prevalent dominant species in the studied areas.

Dominant Species	Frequency	Percent	Dominance Level Low = <5, Moderate = 5 to 9, High= >9
Acacia	14	4.3	High
Amra	2	.6	Low
Areca	28	8.7	High
Aroid	1	.3	Low
Bamboo	10	3.1	Moderate
Banana	14	4.3	High
Basok	1	.3	Low
Bead tree	3	.9	Low
Betel leaf	1	.3	Low
Bitter gourd	1	.3	Low
Bohera	1	.3	Low
Bottle gourd	2	.6	Low
Brinjal	2	.6	Low
Chilli	4	1.2	Low
Citrus	7	2.2	Moderate
Coconut	25	7.7	High
Coriander	1	.3	Low
Country bean	1	.3	Low
Date palm	6	1.9	Moderate
Dhatura	1	.3	Low
Durba grass	1	.3	Low
Eucalyptus	7	2.2	Moderate
Fig	1	.3	Low
Gamar	2	.6	Low
Ginger	4	1.2	Low
Green gram	1	.3	Low
Guava	7	2.2	Moderate
Horitoki	1	.3	Low
Ipil ipil	2	.6	Low
Jackfruit	22	6.8	High
Jam	3	.9	Low
Jujube	4	1.2	Low
Jute	1	.3	Low
Kadam	1	.3	Low
Kala koroi	1	.3	Low
Katbadam	1	.3	Low
Kochu	4	1.2	Low
Litchi	3	.9	Low
Mahogony	22	6.8	High
Mandar	2	.6	Low
Mango	31	9.6	High
Neem	10	3.1	Moderate
Night queen	1	.3	Low
Onion	1	.3	Low
Papaya	10	3.1	Moderate
Pineapple	2	.6	Low
Plum	2	.6	Low
Pomegranate	1	.3	Low
Pomelo	1	.3	Low
Pudina	1	.3	Low
Raintree	9	2.8	Moderate
Raj koroi	1	.3	Low
Red amaranth	1	.3	Low
Sada koroi	1	.3	Low
Sajna	5	1.5	Moderate
Silk koroi	1	.3	Low
Silk tree	1	.3	Low
Simul	1	.3	Low
Sissoo	1	.3	Low
Sofeda	2	.6	Low
Spinach	1	.3	Low
Sweet gourd	2	.6	Low
Tamarind	1	.3	Low
Teak	6	1.9	Moderate
Thankuni	1	.3	Low
Tulsi	2	.6	Low
Turmeric	8	2.5	Moderate
Velvety apple	1	.3	Low
Wood apple	3	.9	Low

Table 6.

Division-wise prevalence of high and moderate dominant species.

Dominant Species	Dhaka	Chattogram	Khulna	Rajshahi	Barisal	Sylhet	Mymensingh	Rangpur
Mango	6	7	5	4	0	5	3	3
Areca	4	7	5	2	1	3	4	2
Coconut	4	8	6	2	1	3	1	0
Mahogany	4	4	3	2	1	2	3	3
Jackfruit	5	3	3	4	1	1	3	2
Acacia	5	4	0	0	0	1	4	0
Banana	1	4	4	1	0	1	2	1
Bamboo	2	1	4	1	0	1	1	0
Neem	2	1	1	2	0	1	2	1
Papaya	1	2	2	1	0	2	2	0
Raintree	1	3	3	0	1	0	1	0
Turmeric	1	0	3	0	0	1	2	1
Citrus	1	1	3	0	0	1	1	0
Eucalyptus	3	1	0	1	0	0	1	1
Guava	2	1	1	0	1	1	1	0
Date palm	0	1	3	2	0	0	0	0
Teak	2	2	0	0	0	0	2	0
Drumstick	0	1	3	0	0	0	0	1

Most literature had addressed homestead agroforestry’s efficiency in food security, employment opportunity, and economic growth that were efficient enough to accomplish Sustainable Development Goals of “No Poverty,” “Decent work,” and economic growth.” Again, the significant number of literature highlighted the significance of homestead agroforestry in fulfilling the goals of “Zero Hunger” followed by “Affordable and Clean Energy,” “Climate Action,” “Life on Land,” “Good Health and Well-being,” “Reasonable Consumption and Production,” “Reduced inequalities” and “Gender Equality” respectively. Most of the publications were directed toward the goals mentioned above.

3. Homestead agroforestry in the context of sustainable development goals

In tropical and subtropical regions, homestead agroforestry can be extended due to favorable climatic appearance. This ultimately helps implement the attributes of sustainable development goals, including sustainable production, food security, and nutritional security. It has been clarified that homestead agroforestry has the potential to contribute to achieving sustainable development goals. In developing countries like Bangladesh, most rural people depend on homestead products to get their required fruits, fodder, medicinal plants, and fuelwood species from homestead areas. After fulfilling the self-consumption, the rest of the products are marketed. That eventually helps in the reduction of their poverty level and also encourages economic growth through employment opportunities. Besides, an enormous contribution lies in environmental resource conservation, such as greenhouse gas emission mitigation, carbon stocking, and exotic species preservation. Hence, homestead agroforestry is greatly directed toward achieving sustainable goals as it greatly connects to fulfilling sustainable development targets (Table 3).

Table 3.

The relevancy of homestead agroforestry in achieving SDG in Bangladesh.

SDGs	Homestead Agroforestry Relevance	Reference
No Poverty	In household income, homestead apportioned 20.65% of total annual income with profitable production of fruit and timber species such as Mango, Jackfruit, and Mahogany	[46]
Zero Hunger	On the off-shore island, 42.72% of vegetation was occupied by homestead products, and farmers preferred fruits (76%) and timber (62%) production that acted as a reservoir of food and income.	[7]
	The vegetable production by small, marginal, and landless farmers was 511 kg/year, 499 kg/year, and 422 kg/year, respectively.	[47]
Good Health and Well-being	Homestead agroforestry was found as a prime source of medicinal plants, and they were recorded at 32.6% in Feni.	[48]
	Involvement in homestead vegetable production increased the yielding of plant protein (by 171%), vitamin A (189%), vitamin C (290%), and iron (284%).	[49]
Quality Education	Homestead agroforestry in Bangladesh was found not directed towards this ground.	Not available
Gender Equality	53% of women were connected in input organizing, selecting, and planting tree species and post plantation management comprising preservation of seeds and selling in Natore district.	[50]
Clean Water and Sanitation	The involvement in homestead agroforestry-related projects or agricultural diversification projects caused 100% of farmers to obtain good sanitation and safe drinking water	[51]
Affordable and Clean Energy	The homestead fuelwood utilization helped reduce 0.22 mg CO2 eH/Ha and contributed as an alternative to fossil fuel use in Bandarban.	[8]
	Fuelwood produce helped in earning US$71.9 annually.	[52]
Decent Work and Economic Growth	Tangible net benefits of US$674.9 (without labour cost from family) and US$535.2 (with family labour cost) derived from home garden products.	[52]
	As a measure of plant repositioning, homesteads contributed 18% of overall annual income in a household after fulfilling self-consumption.	[9]
Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure	40% of raw materials of bamboo, such as Melocanna baccifera and Bambusa polymorpha supplied from homestead sources for the cottage industry (bamboo-based)	[53]
Reduced Inequalities	The homesteads of different religious subcultures significantly conserved the local ecosystem by adopting species richness in the Narsingdi district	[54]
Sustainable Cities and Communities	In Sylhet Metropolitan city, betel nut, Coconut, Borassus flabellifer, and date palm were common palm trees that contributed to biomass accumulation and organic carbon storage of 20.28 MT/ha	[55]
Reasonable Consumption and Production	In Ganges valley, homestead agroforestry supplied 30% of fruits and 80% of crops for self-consumption, where 70% of fruits were sold to local markets that indicated its beneficiary output in terms of dietary and economic	[10]
Climate Action	A Homestead area of 70% was found allocated for forestry in the Teknaf peninsula due to which above ground. Biomass and carbon stock recorded 235.45 Mg/ha and 117.73 Mg C/ha, respectively	[11]
Life Below Water	The traditional use of forestry, such as fruits of D. indica immersion, protects aquatic fish by discouraging otters	[56]
Life on Land	meanwhile, IUCN red list species bet, Kalo Megh, kosum were detected in the southern region	[12]
Peace, Justice, and Strong Institution	The contribution of neighbors in supplying sources of planting materials such as seeds, seedlings, and vegetative propagules was 3%, whereas the forest department contributed 17%	[13]
Partnership for Goals	The relevancy of homestead agroforestry with this goal was not detected	Not available

Homestead farming led maximum farmers to prefer a high vegetable intake of 51–100 g per person per day, which was responsible for improving the farm economy and livelihood in Narsingdi and Gazipur [51]. The great extent of the production of vegetables and fruits not only satisfied self-consumption or food and nutrition security but also generated a profound net return [57]. In the case of landless, marginal, and small farmers, net benefits were derived from selling products such as homestead woodlots [58]. In Sandwip Upazila of Chattogram, fruit, timber, and fuelwood plantations were preferred by 75%,63.3%, and 45% of farmers, respectively, and succeeded in obtaining 13.5% of total annual income by securing nutritional and wood fuel requirements and climate resilience [59]. Farmers found interest in homestead agroforestry for fruit, timber, and fuelwood, and common species were recorded Jackfruit, Citrus, Litchi, Pineapple, Banana, Guava, Mango, Beechwood, Teak, Albizia spp., Mahogany, Acacia in Chattogram hill tract [60]. The presence of species fulfils the need for affordable energy utilizing fuelwood. In the south-central Noakhali district, the study revealed that 58% of respondents depended on home gardens for biomass fuel, while 87% used homestead products (wood, dry leaves, crop residues, etc.) as a source of fuelwood [14]. Homestead forests were responsible for increasing ecosystem services for which the average biomass density and carbon density were recorded at 9.33 ton/ha and 4.57 ton/ha, respectively, with the economic value of USD 80.96 ± 25.52 in Fatikchari, Chattagram [61]. While land fragmentation is a threat to sustainable cities and climatic change, homestead agroforestry eliminates the threats by increasing carbon stock and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Subsequently, life on land is protected by the maintenance of biodiversity. The presence of species richness revealed that Bangladesh could protect life on land [62]. In South Surma of Sylhet, most women showed positive opinions toward traditional homestead vegetable production practices [63]. The high Survival rate of tree species is assured by women’s involvement in site selection and maintenance within their domain, which indicates Bangladesh has the scope to intensify homestead agroforestry [64]. Women and minorities get the opportunity to access homestead production. For instance, the Manipuri community applied their indigenous management practices in the home garden in Sylhet, which expressed the probability of inequality reduction by ensuring their accessibility [65] (see Fig. 1).

Fig. 1.

Article inclusion procedure based on eligibility criteria.

Meanwhile, among religious communities, the highest source of tree species was derived from home gardens in Narsingdi Sadar, Raipur, and Palash sub-districts of Narsingdi district [66]. Hence, homestead agroforestry paves the way for livelihood improvement. Women’s engagement in homestead agricultural activities, consumption, marketing, and decision-making hinted at the opportunity for optimum production through further training facilities, technical support, and encouragement [67]. Fig. 2 depicts the potentiality of homestead agroforestry for Sustainable Development Goals in Bangladesh by combining all targets.

Fig. 2.

Potentiality of homestead agroforestry towards attaining SDGs.

3.1. Prospects of homestead agroforestry in food security

Homestead facilitates self-consumption, thus securing food requirements in Bangladesh. Farmers of different regions depend on homesteads for household food security and have opted to plant diverse plants in their homestead areas. A study in 2015 revealed that the homestead area increased by 55–57%, spreading from a low elevation to a high elevation over eight years [68]. A study in Northern Bangladesh expressed that 9% of land found utilized as homestead agroforestry with conspicuous characteristics of the upper layer, intermediate layer, the herbaceous layer of the fully grown tree, fruit, medicinal, emergent, vegetable species for home consumption, and market supply [69]. In the Meherpur district, 21% of the land was utilized for agroforestry, where the majority of, 92% of farmers preferred practicing agroforestry in homesteads [70]. The prospects of homestead agroforestry are praiseworthy as farmers had their homesteads for planting trees [71]. Farmers prefer diverse species that can fulfill their dietary needs and act as an influencer of food security. The record on diversity and species richness in the Gazipur district revealed that farmers were willing to adopt homestead agroforestry for basic needs such as fruit, fodder, vegetables, fuel, cash, timber, etc. [16]. The common deltaic, plain, hilly, and dryland species identified Mango, Pineapples, Papaya, Jackfruit, Banana, Guava, Betel nut, and general uses of the products marked as food, fruit, timber, fodder, medicine, fuelwood, etc. [72]. In the Bhola, Patuakhali, and Barguna regions of southern districts, over 80% of households were associated with producing fruit tree species, whereas over 65% of households preferred timber species [17]. In Keshabpur of Jessore district, many farmers preferred homestead agroforestry and possessed a positive attitude toward its contribution to offering tangible and intangible benefits of diverse products, selling them, and providing environmental service [2]. Fruit species were dominantly present in 75% of respondents' homesteads, whereas 80% of respondents preferred timber species of Mahogany, Eucalyptus, and Acacia in Gopalpur, Tangail district [18]. In Sandwip, 75% of the homestead was occupied by dominant species of Coconut, Betel nut, Guava, Musa sp., Papaya, Date palm, and Mango for subsistence and cash need; 62.2% of farmers preferred Mahogany, Acacia, Teak, Eucalyptus for timber while preference for horticultural species helped in generating monetary benefit and nutrition demand [73]. Sixty-eight percent of farmers were found practicing homestead agroforestry with woody perennials (Mango, Litchi, Citrus, Jackfruit, Guava, Acacia, Jujube, Beechwood, Neem, Teak, Sal, Khaya sp., Bamboo) and crop (Papaya, Banana, Taro or Colocasia alba, Yard long bean, Sponge gourd, Malabar Spinach)species in Tangail and Mymensingh district [74]. Dominant practices found Mahogany-Turmeric, Mahogany-Acacia-Turmeric, and Litchi-Banana-Turmeric in the Nakla sub-district, and it was interpreted that not only food security but also annual income positively related to tree species diversity [15]. Farmers of Kaliganj sub-district, Satkhira district, produced Betel nut, Coconut, Mahogany, Spinach, Plum, Date palm, Tal, Neem, Jackfruit, and Kaora with vegetables, crops, and 98% of farmers were positive regarding homestead agroforestry [75]. In the Naogaon district, common species, timber, gum, medicinal, and exotic species (Sissoo, Eucalyptus, Mahogany) were planted by farmers, and dominance indices followed an upward trend with increased landholdings [19]. The IVI (Importance Value Index) value was found 42.34% and 54.74%, respectively, for Acacia in Lakshmipur and Narsingdi villages respectively [20]. The nutrition supply, economic return, employment opportunities, and poverty reduction were consequences of adopting homestead production practices. The formation of smallholder farmers' subsistence and income was shaped by the homestead garden and its various cropping schedule, which acted as production units of food, cash, firewood, and year-round production facilities in Kishoreganj, Nawabganj, Satkhira, and Dhaka districts [76]. While smaller farm holders depended on their home gardens for income, the large farm holder depended on self-consumption in the Thakurgaon district [77]. Edible species contained the greatest proportion of overall uses that meet daily subsistence and dietary requirements and the rich traditional heritage hints at the necessity of species conservation in respective regions. The home yard, front yard, approach road, and boundary microsites should be aligned with appropriate design and management [78].

3.2. Prospects of homestead agroforestry in livelihood improvement

Adopting different agroforestry practices in homestead areas widens the opportunity for livelihood improvement. The SDGs of poverty alleviation, well-being, decent work by employment opportunity, and economic growth is boosted by homestead agroforestry. In support of livelihood, commercial benefits, household expenses, and annual income, the contribution of intense food-producing and fruit-producing species was undeniable in deltaic, hilly, dryland, and hilly areas [79]. Income from the homestead, credit and homestead area had a significant positive relationship with Gazipur Sadar’s biodiversity [80]. In Bhaluka, Fulbaria, Mymensingh Sadar, and Muktagacha of the Mymensingh district, farmers constructed a great deal of traditional and indigenous knowledge for homestead agroforestry that essentially delivers economic and environmental benefits [21]. The empirical study of those sub-districts figured out that a correlation existed between income and homestead practices, and such forestry practices could be enriched by synthesizing existing indigenous knowledge [81]. In the Kalroa and Tala sub-districts of the Satkhira district, tree diversity was significantly related to annual income [82]. As a means of livelihood improvement, nutritional security, and food security, plant diversity is regarded as a commendable scope, and it maintained a positive correlation with annual income in Kamalganj Upazila of Moulvibazar district [22]. Net benefit increased with increased landholdings of homesteads in the Ganges valley and a multilayered cropping system [10]. Meanwhile, tree species diversification was significantly correlated with annual income in Madhupur, Tangail district [23]. Income correlated with tree species diversity, and homestead was responsible for diversity maintenance and increased productivity [24]. Forty-nine percent of the contribution to the annual income of hillsides in the peninsula, Cox’s Bazar, was kept by homestead forests [11]. Meanwhile, another study in Teknaf Peninsula revealed that 25% of total annual income was derived from homestead produce as 85% of homesteads contained diverse species, and farm sizes of 1.1–2 ha contained greater species richness [83]. The agro-silviculture (62%) was found to be the most prevalent practice in homesteads of Kamalganj Upazila in the Moulvibazar district, and fruitful outputs from homestead agroforestry by farmers were noted in the shade, the daily need, additional income, soil erosion management, N-fixation [84]. In mid-hill, timber and bamboo facilitated high revenue generation that contributed to the household economy [8]. The economic prosperity of the Khasia community occurred due to the practice of betel leaf-based agroforestry in a home garden,s which contributed 79.73% of total agroforestry income [25]. Homestead forest served wood fuel by keeping a contribution of 78.75% where most identified species were Bot, Koroi, Mango, Tentul, Bamboo, Akashmoni, etc. [85]. In damar Upazila of Nilphamari district, Betel nut, Jackfruit, and Mango occupied homestead areas of 19.17%,10.34%, and 7.96%, respectively, and contributed 6.63% of household income [26]. In southwestern Bangladesh, 40% of species were used for multipurpose was 31% contributed to cash generation, which indicated livelihood subsistence significantly supported by homesteads in those localities [12]. Homesteads offered 11.8% of total household income and provided potential subsistence as 39.1% of homestead forests were utilized for household consumption, and 60.9% were utilized for marketing [27]. More than one-third of farmers were associated with planting Eucalyptus for multiple purposes, including pole and post, fuelwood, shade, soil rehabilitation, windbreak, and protection, while the mean annual increment stood at 10.68m³/ha/year in Mir Sarai Chattogram [86]. In the Jessore district, 13% contributed to subsistence, followed by cash generation, where monthly contribution stood at 9% of average household income [28]. 72.97% of total species were recognized as economically useful, among which medicinal, timber, fruit, ornamental, vegetables, fuelwood, oil, spice, and fiber were detected 55.42%,10.24%,11.45%,10.84%,9.03%, 7.83%,4.22%,1.5%,2.41% respectively in respective districts of Tangail, Dhaka, Manikganj, and Gazipur [87]. Contributions in average annual income in Teknaf Peninsula were 49,36 and 6% in the hillside, beachside, and Shahpariar dwip, respectively [11]. The percent of usage of total homestead products was 33.2 contributed to self-consumption, whereas 66.8% of products were utilized for selling and 15.9% contribution generated by average household income [29]. The Homestead area occupied 61% of Tal trees, and it substantially helped in improving the rural economy through income and employment opportunities in the Jhalakathi district [88]. An analysis of investment return in Sandwip Upazila of Chattogram disclosed that homestead agroforestry was responsible for yielding a high benefit-cost ratio, high return, and net value by the production of Jackfruit, Coconut, Teak, Mahogany, etc. [30]. In char Gobadia, Mymensingh district, livelihood improvement relied upon the agroforestry system by increasing income related to plant richness [18]. Homestead agroforestry fulfilled the objectives of maximum production and increased income of large farmers who adopted multipurpose tree species greater than five Tangail district Gopalpur Upazila [31]. In terms of generating profitability, the identified species were Black plum, Hog plum, and Betel nut among fruit species, and Mahogany, Teak among timber species in Chhagalnaiya subdistrict, Feni district [32]. In the Moulvibazar district, the cash return annual income of Khasia tribes was increased by adopting betel leaf-based homestead agroforestry practices alongside the production of Jarul, Chapalish, Rata, Toon, Jackfruit, Simul, Kadam, Mango, Betelnut and others [89]. The agroforestry system of bean-betelnut was found most prevalent in the char land of Mymensingh, Sherpur, and Jamalpur, whereas Turmeric-ginger-mango was top-ranked in the hill ecosystem of Rangamati and Bandarban [33]. In the Panchagarh district, home gardens were partially allocated for planting betel leaves and nuts for sustainable profitability [90]. Farmers realized the economic importance of citrus production to satisfy their needs as annual income perceived a significant relation with the increasing number of citrus species in Barlekha, Moulvibazar [34]. Mahogany, Jackfruit, Mango, Date palm, etc., were profoundly planted by farmers to secure food requirements and alleviate poverty through their contribution to household income [2]. In northeastern Bangladesh, people planted a wide range of drought-tolerant plants such as Khair, Babla, Bel, Kadam, Betelnut, Jackfruit, etc., as a supplement to resin, timber, medicine, gum, nutrition, etc. [91]. A study of the northwestern agroecological zone found that Bamboo, Jackfruit, Mango, Betelnut, and Jujube were common trees in homesteads where women played a role in species selection, such as indigenous trees and exotic species [92]. Sweet gourds, Mahogany, and Mango, were planted as profitable species along with other perennial species of Coconut, Jackfruit, Date palm, Blackberry, Guava, Sissoo, Betel-nut, and Bamboo in the Rajshahi district [35]. The identified species for cash growth were Jackfruit and Mango in the Thakurgaon district [36]. In the ship-breaking area in Sitakund of Chattogram documented dominant species were Coconut, Eucalyptus, and Mango, where the dominant purpose of the plantation was deposit [93]. In the Natore district, the homesteads contained an average of 21.25 tree species, 10 agroforestry systems, and timber plants that had great economic value [37]. Farmers encountered planting trees on homestead primarily for economic purposes, which indicated that in poverty alleviation and household income ascendance, agroforestry practices on the homestead are capable enough [94]. Meanwhile, in Kapasia, Gazipur’s annual production was contributed mostly by home yards of homesteads [78]. Such practices in a piece of homestead render income opportunities and improve the livelihood. For instance, homestead gardening develops employment opportunity for women, ameliorate the environment through environmental resource conservation and sustainable management, and significantly impacts economic condition and home garden investment [38]. Meanwhile, for livelihood improvement and sustainable land use in Chattogram, homestead agroforestry practices were found efficient for nursery establishment, women’s employment opportunities, and increased productivity [95]. Training, varietal development, and seedling raising were found to be positive influencers, and farmers' preferences for these were responsible for improving the farm economy and livelihood. In terms of decision-making on homestead agroforestry, savings and expenditure decisions were predominantly taken by females in Kamalganj, Moulvibazar district [96]. The Agrosilvopastoral system was found to be followed by the Garo tribe, where homestead forest management was rendered by women [39]. In terms of affordable energy, both household categories of rich and medium farm size obtained biomass fuel of 44% and 49%, respectively, from homesteads, where 63% of females contributed to the collection of biomass fuel in the Chattogram region [97]. The evidences indicated that homestead agroforestry is capable enough in improving the livelihood status of rural people which can consequently result in rural empowerment.

3.3. Prospects of homestead agroforestry in environmental resources conservation

Bangladesh is exposed to increased environmental pollution, where greenhouse gas emission is a major threat. In this aspect, homestead agroforestry could effectively measure sustainable resilience to climate change and biodiversity maintenance. The provisioning services of fruit consumption, fuelwood collection, bamboo extraction, and regulating services of climate regulation, biodiversity conservation, cooling effects, and environmental resource protection are supported by homestead agroforestry that increases ecological benefits such as carbon sequestration and biodiversity conservation. To satisfy self-consumption and expenditure, homestead areas could be a sustainable option through which disaster risk also could be reduced [98]. Farmers believed home gardens were an influential attribute of livelihood improvement by providing subsistence, family income, and efficient responsiveness towards climatic change [99]. Homestead gardening is an efficient platform for ecological balance maintenance and environmental stabilization [15]. It was explained as one of the contributory factors developed in response to food and cash demand, deterioration of water, and soil quality [100]. The unavailability of forests led farmers to depend on the homestead that fulfilled their requirement of wood fuel, nutrition, income, and protection from cyclones by homestead agroforestry products in Sandwip, off-shore Island [59]. The study in the Satkhira district revealed that almost all farmers adopted homestead agroforestry [101]. In Ullarpara of Sirajganj district, the average farmland size of a home garden was 0.07 ha which was the second major contributor to species diversification, and from there, 80% of farmers derived their fodder [102]. In biodiversity maintenance, the potential contributor identified Betel nut, Snake gourd, Red amaranth, and Mahogany in Ajmiriganj of Habiganj district [40]. To avoid shade problems for shade-intolerant species, farmers preferred Mahogany, Eucalyptus, Date palm, Indian ash tree, etc., in Ullarpara of Sirajganj [102]. Besides contribution to increasing income, sales, revenue, and land utilization, the total energy supply, biomass fuel harvest, multiple provisioning services, and substantial reduction in CO2 gas emissions were also accompanied by home gardens in Moheshkhali island, Cox’s Bazar district [103]. The high tree coverage, basal area, and height helped in carbon sequestration by storing substantial amounts of carbon and biomass carbon in Dighalia Upazila, Khulna district [104]. In the Rangpur district, the study revealed that total biomass and carbon stock were found above 53.53 mg/ha, whereas small home gardens contained 69.15 mg/ha of carbon stock [41]. In Peninsula, Cox’s Bazar biomass of 235.45 mg/ha and carbon of 117.73 mg/ha were recorded above ground coverage [11]. Such records of carbon sequestration pose a positive impact on the environment. Homestead forests can assure emission reduction and carbon sequestration. The homestead of high and medium altitudes detected containing efficient biomass carbon stock where one unit increased in species diversity elevated biomass stock by 23 mg C/ha and carbon sequestration detected by 89 mg C/ha [105]. In Northern Bangladesh, the analysis from a soil depth of 0–10 cm shrub homestead (soil organic carbon: phosphorus = 0.011, Soil nitrogen: phosphorus = 0.023),0–10 cm tree shrub homestead (soil nitrogen: phosphorus = 0.03), and 10–20 cm depth of soil (Carbon: nitrogen = p < 0.05) revealed that mixed plantation, diversifications or species richness were more effective for resources Conservation [106]. In Moheshkhali island of Cox’s Bazar, the determined carbon stocks due to one unit increase in diversity and species richness were 30 Mg C/ha and 22 Mg C/ha, respectively, where carbon stock was found greatest in the inland forest (51 Mg C/ha) and soil surface of hillside forests [107].

3.4. Dominant species coverage

The farmers of Bangladesh are associated with planting diverse species of fruits, fodder, timber, medicinal, etc., among which most acted as Muti Purpose Tree Species (MPTS). As a result, the economy benefited from the significant coverage of tree species. Table 4 represents the dominant species and their respective coverage in different localities of Bangladesh.

3.5. Frequent dominant species in different localities

Among all dominant species, Mango (N = 31), Areca (N = 28), Coconut (N = 25), Mahogany (N = 22), Jackfruit (N = 22), Acacia (N = 14), Banana (N = 14) were highly dominant in terms of prevalence whereas Bamboo (N = 10), Neem (N = 10), Papaya (n = 10), Raintree (N = 9), Turmeric (N = 8), Citrus (N = 7), Eucalyptus (N = 7), Guava (N = 7), Date palm (N = 6), Teak (N = 6), Sajna or Drumstick (N = 5) prevailed moderately. The rest of the detected dominant species were found at a lower frequency (Table 5).

Fig. 3 depicts the intensity or prevalence of the dominant species. The division-wise distribution of dominant species revealed that Areca, Mahogany, and Jackfruit were common among all those found in all divisions as dominant species (Table 6). Mango and Coconut were also significant dominant species preferred by farmers in all divisions except Barisal and Rangpur.

Fig. 3.

Intensity of various dominant species.

In Dhaka, the dominant species, Mango, followed by Jackfruit and Acacia, covered most of the cultivated homestead. Meanwhile, Coconut, followed by Mango and Areca, was most abundant in the Chattogram region. A similar scenario was quite evident for Khulna and Sylhet divisions. But the difference was that in Sylhet, Mango was the most frequent. Rajshahi and Barisal divisions had minimized coverage of dominant species where Mango and Jackfruit were quite popular. In contrast, Acacia and Areca were the most abundant dominant species in Mymensingh, followed by Mango, Coconut, and Jackfruit. Finally, in Rangpur, Mango, Mahogany followed by Areca and Jackfruit, were the most prevalent dominant species. In all respective divisions, Mango, Areca, Coconut, and Mahogany are the most significant dominant species farmers of Bangladesh prefer for their homestead area.

3.6. Homestead agroforestry scope towards sustainable development targets in Bangladesh

From the above literature, it is quite evident that being an integrated part of life science, homestead agroforestry has already been accepted by all groups, including marginalized farmers. In this case, homestead agroforestry has developed the criteria for fulfilling SDGs directly, and in some cases, it acts as a pathway for fulfilling some vital targets indirectly (Table 7).

Table 7.

Homestead agroforestry scope towards sustainable development targets.

Sustainable Development Targets	Scope
1.1Elimination of excess poverty of all people, including the current estimation of less than $1.25 per day	Direct
1.2Reduction of poverty by a minimum half proportion of all ages, including children, women, and men, in respect of all dimensions and according to national definitions	Direct
1.3System of social protection, measures for all comprising floors implementation which is nationally appropriate and substantial coverage attainment of vulnerable and poor	Indirect
1.4ensuring equal rights and access to economic resources and essential services, including land ownership, land control, inheritance, various property forms, natural resources, financial assistance, microfinance, and technology to all vulnerable and poor	Direct
1.5Reducing vulnerable situations of exposure as well as climate vulnerability, including hazardous climatic events, social and economic shocks, and environmental disasters	Direct
1.aResource mobilization ensuring from various sources and development cooperation enhancement to assure predictable and adequate means, policies, and programs implementation to eradicate poverty of all dimensions	Indirect
1.bHealthy policy framework creation based on development strategy such as gender-sensitive and pro-poor at all levels, including regional, national, and international levels, to enhance investment in actions of poverty eradication	Direct
2.1Hunger mitigation of all people exposed to vulnerability and poverty and ensuring access to food that is nutritious, safe, and prevails year-round	Direct
2.2Malnutrition elimination of every form comprising wasting and stunting (children below five) by the year 2025 and identifying nutrition requirements of teenage girls, older individuals, nursing and pregnant women	Direct
2.3Agricultural productivity as well as small-scale producers' income doubling, including family farmers, indigenous, pastoralists, women, and fishers and assuring equal and secured access to land, input, knowledge, productive assets, financial assets, off-farm employment, and value addition opportunities	Direct
2.4ensuring sustainable and resilient food production and agricultural practices that elevate production and productivity, conserve the ecosystem, build climatic resilience and improve soil and land quality	Direct
2.5Genetic diversity (seed, domesticated and farmed animals, cultivated plants, wild species) maintenance by 2020 through plants and seed banks at all levels and ensuring equal benefit-sharing from genetic resource utilization as well as associated conventional knowledge with international level agreements	Direct
2.aIncreasing investment in rural infrastructure, technological advancement, agricultural research, gene banks (livestock and plants), and extension service, particularly in nations of least developed with international collaboration	Direct
2.bTrade barriers and distortions correction, including export subsidies and equivalent export measures in global agricultural markets, conforming with the direction of the Doha Development Round.	Indirect
2.cLimiting price volatility of food by assuring the appropriate operation of derivatives and markets of food commodities and allowing access to market information on food reserves	Direct
3.1Ratio of global maternal mortality reduction less than 70 (per live birth of 100,000)	Indirect
3.2Neonatal mortality reduction to a minimum of 25 per live birth of 1000, which causes the death of children under five and newborns	None
3.3Mitigation of all sorts of tropical illnesses, AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis, water borne disease, hepatitis, and other communicable diseases	Indirect
3.4Reduction of premature mortality by 1/3 from non-communicable disease by treatment and prevention, thereby increasing wellbeing and good mental health	Indirect
3.5Substance abuse treatment and strengthening the prevention comprising alcohol and narcotics.	None
3.6Reducing global road accidents and deaths by half by the year 2020	None
3.7Ensuring universal access to health care facilities of reproductive and sexual comprising education, information, family planning, and reproductive health integration into national programs and plans.	None
3.8Global health coverage achievement, including protection from financial risks, accessibility to health care facilities of affordable medicines, vaccines that are effective, safe, and qualitative	Indirect
3.9Substantial reduction of deaths and diseases caused by water, soil, air pollution, and harmful chemicals	Direct
3.aWHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control’s implementation in all countries when appropriate	None
3.bMedicines and vaccines research and development supporting all kinds of diseases and ensuring access in the context of the Doha Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health, which affirms developing countries' right to fully utilize TRIPS Agreement provisions and trade-related aspects of rights (Intellectual Property) regarding flexibility.	None
3.cHealth financing and health workforce recruitment, training, development, and retention in all developing nations, significantly least developed nations, developing states such as small island	None
3.dCapacity strengthening of all developing nations, particularly least developing nations, in terms of early warning, minimizing risks, managing health issues	Indirect
4.1ensuring access of boys and girls to full free, quality, and equitable primary and secondary education, which leads to learning outcomes that are effective and relevant	None
4.2ensuring access of all boys and girls to care, early childhood improvement, and pre-primary education to make them prepared for primary education	None
4.3Ensuring equitable access of females and males to quality and affordable vocational, technical, and higher education, including university	None
4.4Increasing frequency of young adults who consist relevant skills, such as vocational and technical for decent jobs, employment, and entrepreneurship	None
4.5Eliminating gender gaps in education and ensuring access of vulnerable individuals, including children, indigenous and the disabled, to all education levels and vocational training.	None
4.6Ensuring numeracy and literacy of all youth and a significant proportion of grown-ups, including males and females	None
4.7ensuring that all learners have skills and knowledge to enhance sustainable development and lifestyles, gender equality, human rights, zero violence, cultural peace, cultural diversity acceptance, global citizenship, etc., through education	None
4.aEducation facilities building and upgrading for the child, gender-sensitive, and disabled and providing learning environments of inclusive, non-violent, and safe.	None
4.bExpanding available global scholarships in developing nations, specifically least developed regions (small islands) and African countries, and facilitating enrolment in information technology, communication technology, vocational training, scientific and engineering programs	None
4.cIncreasing the proportion of qualified teachers through international cooperation in the least developed nations, developing countries, and developing states of small islands	None
5.1All types of discrimination are eliminated everywhere against females and girls.	Indirect
5.2All kinds of violence elimination against girls and women in private and public, including sexual exploitation, trafficking, and others	None
5.3Detrimental practices of early child and forced marriage and women’s genital mutilation stopping	Indirect
5.4Domestic works and unpaid works appreciation and recognition using public service provisioning, infrastructure, policies on social protection, shared responsibility promotion within the family, household	Direct
5.5ensuring females' effective and complete involvement and equal access to leadership and decision-making at all levels of public, economic, and political life	Direct
5.6Ensuring global access to reproductive and sexual health rights in terms of the International Conference (on programs of Population and Development’s Action) and the Beijing Platform of Action, the definitive texts of the reviewed conferences.	None
5.aEnsuring women’s equal access to economic resources of land control and ownership, inheritance, financial service, and natural resources in conformity with national laws.	Direct
5.bUplifting enabled technology, including communication and information, to assure women’s empowerment.	Direct
5.cSolid policies adoption and strengthening and enforcing legislation for gender equality proportion and empowering females.	Indirect
6.1Ensuring safe and equal global access to affordable drinking water	None
6.2Ensuring access to sufficient and equitable hygiene and sanitation for all and mitigating open defection, and providing particular concerns to females' needs in vulnerable conditions	Indirect
6.3Developing water quality by pollution reduction, dumping elimination, hazardous substance and materials release minimization, and increasing safe reuse and recycling	Indirect
6.4Improving water use efficiency in all sectors and sustainable withdrawals ensuring freshwater supply to highlight water scarcity and reducing the proportion of people suffering due to water scarcity	None
6.5Integration of management regarding water resources and implementation through appropriate transboundary cooperation	None
6.6Protection and restoration of ecosystems related to water by 2020 comprising lakes, aquifers, wetlands, forests, rivers, and mountains	None
6.aInternational cooperation expansion and supporting capacity building to developing nations in programs and activities related to sanitation and water comprising desalination, water harvesting, wastewater treatment, water efficiency, reuse and recycle technologies	None
6.bSupporting and strengthening the local community’s participation in water improvement and sanitation management	Indirect
7.1Ensuring global access to energy services of trustworthy, affordable, and modern	Direct
7.2Substantially increasing the renewable energy share in the world energy mix	Direct
7.3Improving global energy efficiency rate by twice	Indirect
7.aEnhancing International cooperation to ensure clean energy technology and research access comprising renewable energy, advanced, cleaner, and efficient fossil fuel energy and promoting investment in clean infrastructure and technology	Indirect
7.bInfrastructure expansion and technology upgrading for sustainable and modern energy service supply in all developing nations, particularly the least developed nations and small islands, concerning respective supportive programs	Indirect
8.1Sustaining per capital economic growth concerning the national situation with minimum 7% GDP growth (per annum) in the least developed nations	Indirect
8.2Higher economic productivity attainment through diversification, innovation, and upgraded technology comprising sectors of labour-intensive and value addition	Indirect
8.3Oriented policies development promotion which supports the creation of decent jobs, productive activities, innovation, creativity, entrepreneurship, formalization encouragement, small, medium, and micro enterprises growth enhancement, and financial service accessibility	Direct
8.4Progressive improvement of efficiency in global resources production and consumption and decoupling of economic growth from potential environmental degradation in the context of the sustainable output and Consumption Programs and frameworks with the lead of developed nations	Indirect
8.5Achieving complete and productive decent employment for all males and females, including disabled and young individuals, and ensuring equal pay for works with equal value	Indirect
8.6Reduction of youth proportion who are not engaged in education, employment, and training	Direct
8.7Implementing effective and immediate measures to deduct forced labor, mitigate slavery, trafficking and eliminate child labor, including using child recruitment and use, and by 2025, eliminating all forms of child labor	None
8.8Labor rights protection and secured work environment promotion for all kinds of workers, including migrants, women migrants, and workers in precarious employment	None
8.9Policies devising and implementing sustainable tourism promotion, which facilitates jobs and develops products and local culture	None
8.10Strengthening the domestic financial capacity and expanding access to financial services, including insurance and baking, for all	Indirect
8.aTrade support aid increasing for developing nations, particularly least developing nations, through the framework of enhanced integrated for technical assistance of trade-related to least developed nations	Indirect
8.bOperationalizing and developing global strategy of youth employment and jobs pact implementation of international labor organization	None
9.1Developing reliable, qualitative, resilient, and sustainable infrastructure of transborder and regional to encourage wellbeing and economic growth, focusing on equitable and affordable access	Indirect
9.2Sustainable and inclusive industrialization promotion to increase industry’s employment share and GDP aligned with national circumstances and doubling the share in the least developed nations	Indirect
9.3Small scales industries and enterprises access development in terms of financial services, affordable credits, and their integration into markets and value chains in developing nations	Indirect
9.4Retrofit industries and infrastructure upgrading for sustainability along with improving resource utilization efficiency and environmentally clean industrial process and sound technology adoption with respective capabilities of all nations	Indirect
9.5Scientific research enhancement and technological capabilities upgrading, encouraging innovativeness, elevating the number of development and research workers (per one million people) and spending on private and public research	Direct
9.aFacilitating resilient and sustainable infrastructure development in developing nations by enhanced support in terms of finance, technology, and techniques to African nations, least developed nations, landlocked developing nations, developing states of small island	Indirect
9.bIn developing nations, supporting innovation, research, and technology development by a beneficial policy environment ensuring for industrial diversification, among other things, and value addition to products	Indirect
9.cImproving access to communication and information technology in the least developed nations and providing affordable global access to the internet by 2020	Indirect
10.1Progressive achievement of sustainable income growth (40% population of bottom) at a high rate than the national average	Direct
10.2Promoting and empowering inclusion of political, social, and economic irrespective of sex, age, race, disability, religion, origin, financial status, ethnicity, and others	Indirect
10.3Ensuring equivalent opportunity and minimizing inequalities in the outcome by mitigating biased laws, practices, and policies and implementing accurate legislation, action, and procedures.	None
10.4Adopting policies in terms of fiscal, social protection, wages, and achieving progressive equality	Indirect
10.5Strengthening the regulations and universal financial markets and organizations, monitoring and implementing strengthened regulations	None
10.6For developing nations, voice and enhanced representation implementation in financial institutions of international economic and economical to deliver legitimate, credible, effective, and accountable institutions	Indirect
10.7Facilitating regular, safe, responsible, and orderly mobility and migration of people by well-managed and planned migration policies.	None
10.aIn conformity with agreement of the World Trade Organization, principles of differential and special treatment implementation in developing nations, specifically least developed nations	Indirect
10.bFinancial flows and official progression assistance encouraging comprising direct foreign investment to locations where the necessity is optimum, particularly in the least developed nations, African nations, developing states of small islands, and landlocked developing nations aligned to national programs and plans	Indirect
10.cMinimizing transaction costs of migrant remittances to less than three per cent and reducing remittance corridors greater than five per cent costs	None
11.1Ensuring access to affordable, safe, sufficient essential services and housing and also upgrading slums	Indirect
11.2Providing access to transport systems that are accessible, safe, sustainable, and affordable, ensuring road safety public transport expansions by providing concerns to all in vulnerable circumstances, including children, women and disabled, and older	None
11.3Sustainable and inclusive urbanization and capacity enhancement utilizing sustainable and integrated settlement management and planning in all nations	Direct
11.4Strengthening efforts and safeguarding the Global natural and cultural heritage	None
11.5Ensuring protection of poor people in vulnerable situations by reducing death numbers, affected people, and economic loss reduction concerning GDP occurred by disasters such as water-related disasters	Direct
11.6Reduction of adverse environmental impacts of urban (per capita) and paying concern to the management of municipal, air, and wastes	Direct
11.7Ensuring global penetration to accessible, inclusive, and safe public and green spaces, especially for children, women, and disabled individuals	Direct
11.aStrengthening regional and national development training and supporting social, environmental, and economic links among rural, pre-urban and urban localities	Direct
11.bNumber of cities increasing, adopting human settlements, implementations of integrated planned policies for inclusion, improving resource efficiency, adaptation and mitigation to climatic change, facilitating disaster resilience and risk management at every level by 2015–2030 aligned to Sendai Framework of Disaster Risk Mitigation	Direct
11.cSupporting the least developed nations through technical and financial assistance, resilient and sustainable building by utilizing local resource	Direct
12.1Sustainable production and consumption programs implemented by ten years of framework where all nations taking action where leading ensured by developed countries by considering developing nations' capabilities	Direct
12.2Achieving sustainable management and encouraging proper utilization of natural resources	Direct
12.3Reducing food wastes globally by half (per capita) at consumer and retail levels and food loss reduction in production, post-harvest, and supply chain	Direct
12.4Achieving environmentally safe management of wastes and chemicals in their life cycle with international frameworks and significant reduction of their exposure to air, and soil and minimizing the harmful impact on environment and health by 2020	Indirect
12.5Substantial reduction of generation of waste by reusing, reducing, recycling and prevention	None
12.6Encouraging companies that are transnational and large to adopt sustainable practices and integrate the sustainability information into sustainability information	Indirect
12.7Practices of sustainable public procurement promotion according to national priorities and policies	Indirect
12.8Ensuring that every individual has awareness and relevant information for sustainable lifestyles and development with natural harmony	Direct
12.aSupporting developing nations by strengthening the capacity of scientific technology and moving toward patterns of sustainable production and consumption	Direct
12.bDeveloping tools for sustainable improvement monitoring tools for sustainable tourism to job creation and local products and culture promotion	None
12.cRationalizing the inefficient subsidies of fossil fuels by eliminating market distortions, restructuring taxations and hazardous offerings, reflecting the environmental influence, and considering specific conditions and needs of developing nations to protect affected communities and the poor.	Indirect
13.1Strengthening adaptive capacity and resilience to natural disasters and climatic hazards in all nations	Direct
13.2Climatic change dimensions integration into planning, strategies, and policies	Direct
13.3Awareness-raising, improving education and institutional and human capacity development on climate change adaptation, early warning, mitigation, and impact reduction	Indirect
13.aImplementing the undertaken commitment by developed nation groups to the framework of the United Nations Conference on Climate Change with the target of joint mobilization (annually $100 billion) from all origins to develop nations' needs addressed in the context of implementation transparency and appropriate mitigation actions, operationalizing the fund of Green Climate through capitalization by 2020	Indirect
13.bCapacity promotion for related climate change management and planning in the least developed nations concerning marginalized and local communities, youths, and women	Direct
14.1Prevention and significant reduction of all forms of marine pollution by 2025, mainly from activities of land-based, nutrient pollution, and marine debris	Indirect
14.2Sustainable protection and management of coastal and marine ecosystems by avoiding adverse impacts and resilience strengthening, taking actions for restoration to ensure productive and sound oceans by 2025	None
14.3Addressing and minimizing ocean acidification through practical scientific cooperation	None
14.4Regulating harvesting and prohibiting unreported, illegal, unregulated, and destructive fishing, overfishing, and restoring fish stocks in the least period by implementing scientific management plans by 2020 for maximizing sustainable yield aligned to biological features	None
14.5Conserving a minimum of ten percent of marine and coastal areas by 2020, which is compatible with international and national legislation based on available information	None
14.6Restricting particular sorts of fisheries subsidies of overfishing and extreme capacity and eradicating unregulated, unreported, illegal fishing and staying away from new subsidies introduction; integrating developing and least developed nations on behalf of World Trade Organization negotiation (fisheries subsidy) by recognizing differential and special appropriate and effective treatment	Indirect
14.7Increasing the economic benefits from sustainable utilization of marine resources by sustainable management of tourism, fisheries, and aquaculture of states of small island and least developed nation	None
14.aIncreasing scientific knowledge, developing research capacity, and transferring marine technology aligned with considering guidelines and criteria of the Inter-governmental Oceanographic regarding marine technology transfer for the betterment of ocean health and uplifting marine diversity contribution to the development of countries which are developed, least developed and small island (developing States)	None
14.bEnsuring access of small-scale fishers (artisanal) to marine markets and resources	None
14.cEnhancing sustainable utilization of oceans and conservation and international laws implementation following the United Nations Convention on the law (of the sea) that provides the framework for legal utilization and conservation of oceans and related resources (paragraph 158 of “The future we want”)	None
15.1Ensuring restoration, conservation, and sustainable utilization of ecosystems of inland freshwater and terrestrial, specifically drylands, wetlands, forests, and mountains, aligned with international agreements and obligations by 2020	Direct
15.2Sustainable management implementation of forests, reducing deforestation, restoring destroyed forests, increasing reforestation and afforestation by 2020	Direct
15.3Reducing desertification and restoring soil and lands that are degraded, affected due to desertification, flood, and drought and attain a neutral environment devoid of degradation by 2020	Direct
15.4Ecosystem of biodiversity and mountain conservation to capacity enhancement for providing sustainable development benefits.	Direct
15.5Taking immediate actions to reduce natural degradation, decrease biodiversity loss by 2020 and protect and prevent red-list species' extinction	Direct
15.6Promoting equitable and fair share of genetic resource benefits and ensuring access to these resources in terms of international agreements	Direct
15.7Taking immediate action to mitigate trafficking and poaching of preserved fauna and flora species and addressing the supply and demand of invalidated wildlife assets	Indirect
15.8Introduction of steps for preventing effects of invasive exotic species impact on the ecosystem of water and land by 2020	Indirect
15.9Integrating values of biodiversity and ecosystems into regional and national planning, improvement process, penurity reduction accounts, and strategies by 2020	Direct
15.aIncreasing and mobilizing financial assets of all origins to enhance sustainable utilization and conservation of ecosystem and biodiversity	Direct
15.bResource mobilization from all origins and enhancing finance and sustainable management of forests, providing sufficient remuneration to developing nations to increase surveillance of reforestation and conservation	Direct
15.cEnhancing worldwide support to eliminate trafficking and poaching of preserved species comprising capacity improvement of regional communities to obtain opportunities for a sustainable livelihood	Indirect
16.1All kinds of violence reduction along with the significant decrease in birth rates	None
16.2Eliminating all kinds of exploitation, including violence, trafficking, and child abuse	None
16.3Law promotions at regional and international levels and ensuring equal justice	None
16.4Significant reduction of arms and financial flows that are illicit and improving return and recovery of assets that are stolen and reducing all kinds of crimes	None
16.5Reduction of all forms of bribery and corruption	None
16.6Developing institutions that are accountable, effective, and transparent	Indirect
16.7Ensuring decision-making that is inclusive, representative, participatory and responsive at every level	Indirect
16.8Strengthening and widening the developing nations' participation in worldwide institutions of governance	Indirect
16.9Providing legitimate identity for everyone comprising registration of birth	None
16.10Ensuring people’s accessibility to information and protecting fundamental freedom aligned with domestic legislation and foreign agreements	None
16.aStrengthening domestic institutions employing international assistance for capacity building at every level in developing nations to eliminate violence and reduce crime and terrorism	None
16.bPromoting and enforcing non-biased policies and legislation for sustainable improvement	None
17.1Strengthening mobilization of the national resources by ensuring international assistance to developing nations to develop tax capacity and collection of revenue	None
17.2Implementing commitments of official development support comprising the obligation by developed nations to obtain 0.7% targets of ODA/GNI to developing nations, as well ODA/GNI of 0.15–0.20% to least developed nations; providers (ODA) are induced to set targets of minimum 0.20% (ODA/GNI) to least developed nations.	None
17.3Ensuring more mobilization of financial resources from various sources for developing nations	Indirect
17.4Assisting developing nations in sustainability from prolonged debt through policies that are coordinated and focused on debt restricting, relieving, and finance fostering following appropriateness and external debt addressing of vulnerable nations	None
17.5For developed nations, adopting and implementing the promotion of investment regimes	None
17.6Enhancing international collaboration of triangular, south-south, north-south and assuring access to innovation, technology, and science by enhanced knowledge sharing by the agreement at levels of United nations and mechanisms of world technology facilitation	None
17.7Promoting the technologies development, dissemination, transfer, and diffusion that are environmentally acceptable to developing nations in terms of mutual agreement, preferential and concessional agreement	Indirect
17.8Complete operationalizing the technological innovation, science, knowledge, and bank, building capacity mechanism for nations that are least developed by 2017, enhancing utilization of available technology, specifically communication and information	Indirect
17.9Enhancing universal support (South-south, north-south, triangular collaboration) in developing nations for implementation of targeted and effective capacity building to assist nationwide plans and sustainable development goals implementation	Indirect
17.10Promoting a global, non-biased, equitable, and independent trading system that is multilateral under the World Trade Organization and by negotiations conclusion under the agenda of Doha Development	Indirect
17.11Increasing developing nations' exportation to double worldwide exportation by 2020	None
17.12Realizing the timely execution of market access that is free of quota and duty for least developed nations on a lasting basis, aligned with the decision of the World Trade Organization, and ensuring that applied import rules are simple, transparent, and neutralizing market access	None
17.13Enhancing the stability of worldwide macroeconomy through coordinated policy coherence and coordination	Indirect
17.14Enhancing coherence of policy for ensuring sustainable development	Indirect
17.15Respecting individuals' leadership and space of policy and policies implementation for poverty mitigation and sustained development	None
17.16For sustainable development, enhancing worldwide partnership which is accompanied by multi-stakeholders that share and mobilize knowledge, financial assets, technology, and expertise to support sustainable development goals and achievements in all nations, explicitly developing nations	Indirect
17.17Promoting and encouraging effective partnerships of public-private, public and civil society on resources and experience of partnership strategies	None
17.18Enhancing support of capacity building in developing nations, least developing nations, and developing states of small islands by 2020, elevating availability of reliable, high-quality, and timely data separated by gender, income, age, ethnicity, race, geographic location, disability, migratory status and other characteristics which are matches national contexts	None
17.19Existing initiatives building by progress measurements on sustainable development that support GDP and statistical capability building in developing nations	Indirect

4. Constraints identified regarding homestead agroforestry expansion

The major constraints of homestead agroforestry expansion are farmers' preference for conventional planting systems, monoculture cropping, manufacturing activities, natural disruptions, financial crisis, technological unavailability, etc. (Fig. 4). Traditional uses and a wide range of homestead plants indicate that Bangladesh needs to initiate the conservation of plant biodiversity [56]. Monoculture cropping, anthropogenic activities, natural causes, and pest intensifications disrupt biodiversity and species compositions [19]. Interspecific biodiversity of moderate to high exists in Bangladesh, where environmental and social factors of salinity and family need, respectively, the direct distribution pattern of species [42]. The backdated management system and inadequate scientific information are constraints, and it requires facilities of training, NGO (Non-Government Organization) support, and a management plan [44]. As a home garden is an effective ecological tool, the management plan requires carbon sequestration and tree diversity conservation [41]. The fruit and crop diversification system requires special attention for sustainability and biodiversity maintenance [43]. Farmers are exposed to impediments regarding quality planting materials supply, land scarcities, and financial instability, which urgently require emphasis on Nursery development and capacity building. Inadequate modern technological facilities, arable land, and inputs impede food security, and priority should be given to the efficient utilization of homesteads by intensifying the diversity or composition of tree species [82]. The limiting factors in expanding plant diversity were identified as insufficient quality planting stock [108]. The unavailability of planting materials and reliable sources are limiting constraints of betel leaf-based practices, which require technological support, infrastructure development support, GOs and NGOs support, and training for greater conservation and income generation [25]. Urbanization, sanitation, and homestead fragmentation were marked as factors responsible for decreasing plant biodiversity [80]. Along with urbanization, decreased farm size is described as a factor in restricting plant biodiversity in homesteads [109]. The reasons for fuelwood scarcity were high price, unsustainability, and fragmentation of homestead land in the Narsingdi district, and these necessitate sustainable management of forests, technical information, and support of the institution, extension workers, and forestry professionals [110]. Participatory action research programs unveiled the fact that farmers prioritize homestead tree plantation, but it is exposed to technical barriers, financial problems, and energy shortages [111]. Lack of interest, dissatisfactory market price, and environmental problems were responsible for declining citrus production [34]. Despite the existence of common species of Mango, Banana, Jackfruit, Neem, and Betelnut, the mismanaged cultural practices, lack of space and extension support, and unavailability of organic fertilizers and technologies, the homestead agroforestry were hindered [77]. The empirical study in the Mymensingh district concluded that even in small areas, homesteads were enriched with the sporadic distribution of plant species that urged an emphasis on providing training to homestead dwellers for technical and managerial flexibility [21]. In the Chattogram hill tract, shifting cultivation is exposed to vulnerability as unsuitability has been increasing due to population pressure, and in this situation, agroforestry is the alternative solution [112].

Fig. 4.

Constraints of efficiency of homestead agroforestry.

5. Recommended strategies in response to identified constraints

To minimize the potential hindrances, structural emphasis should be given to aspects of socio-economic characteristics, conservation practices by genetic diversity maintenance and technological advancement, strong institutional support from government and non-government authorities, utilization of available land and resources, and further research and adoption of participatory approaches.

Improving socio-economic characteristics is a way, as socio-economic characteristics of annual income, farm size, and knowledge positively affect plant species diversification [96]. The socio-economic status and livelihood can be advanced by appropriate agroforestry practices implementation [113]. In homestead afforestation, maximum women interplayed medium roles where their performance was positively influenced by training exposure, annual income, education qualifications, and Knowledge in the Mymensingh district [114]. As the education of forest owners was a determining factor in increased productivity in Bagerhat Sadar, education needed to be increased among farmers along with implementing forest policy [29]. Livelihood could be improved by increasing education levels and diversification [46]. In Teknaf Upazila of Cox’s Bazar, the income of large farm holders was comparatively higher, and all farm holders' income could be improved by designing a homestead system with compatible species [45]. In response to decreasing production of cereal, agronomic and horticultural crops, the homestead can be utilized for greater economic stability. The involvement of women can broaden income opportunities and species diversification [83].

In the aspect of conservation practices, the creation of genetic diversity and cash generation can be done by homestead agroforestry as it is the best alternative to monoculture cropping [16]. For species richness, propagation, provision, protection, and popularity, building for rare species need implementation for livelihood betterment, environmental resilience, and biodiversity conservation [9]. The disaster risks of cyclones and storm surges can be escaped by planting timber and fruit trees in homestead areas [98]. Technological advancement could be induced through conventional planting system improvement, lac culture, and sericulture can enlarge economic opportunities [79]. Scientific knowledge and techniques need improvement [91]. In homestead afforestation, women are exposed to underperformance due to a lack of quality planting materials, infestations by biotic agents, lack of knowledge, etc., which need solutions by supplying quality seeds, training facilities, encouraging social system and extension services, etc. [114].

Increasing tree coverage needs to be encouraged with institutional support from respective authorities, including govt and non-govt support [10]. Initiatives by authorities for positive attitude generation are commendable approach [75]. NGOs can play an active role in the utilization of land [95]. Govt should integrate high-value crops and betel leaf-based forests [89]. The Forest Department, local government, and council can ensure Sustainability and Conservation by providing technical advice and incentives on material support [103]. Insufficiency of technical knowledge and land area, finance, and awareness ranked as major constraints that could be improved by external support, financial support, technological advancement, and management plans [99]. Management practices, extension services, and research are important in improving species richness [36].

Home gardens should be enriched to reduce pressure on forests by utilizing marginal households, public roads, river banks, and railways [14]. The agroforestry system of jackfruit pineapple [115] could be an effective contributor to satisfying nutritional demand. Further studies for broadening the scope of increasing local biodiversity are recommended [20]. The efficiency of this sector can contribute to household need satisfaction and sustainable wood fuel distribution [85]. To expand livelihood capital, degradation reduction and the conduction of upland settlement projects are effective approaches to greater exploration [116]. Participatory forestry can be an effective strategy for livelihood improvement by employing farmers in tree plantations that contribute to income generation and encourage plantation [117]. Hence, the strategic and structural approaches need execution for broadening the scope of homestead agroforestry expansion in the context of Sustainable Development Goals.

6. Conclusion

Homestead agroforestry is a thriving forestry practice that is enormously adopted in every rural household. Regarding food security, nutritional security, and welfare, homestead agroforestry is recognized in Bangladesh. The preference for this practice is also commendable. Again, it is widely adopted among various groups regardless of the farm category, social status, community, etc. As a result, different groups of people get the opportunity to improve their livelihood by introducing a wide range of plant species that satisfy self-consumption and generate income opportunities. The participation of a different group of people, including men, women, and ethnic community, in homestead agroforestry help in broadening their employment opportunity. As a result, these positively impact the environment in terms of greenhouse gas emission reduction and carbon stock. Hence, climatic resilience is obtained. The abundant species coverage fulfils the objectives of self-consumption and subsistence that ultimately bring out well-being. The propensity of beneficial outputs has great remarks on achieving sustainable development goals. Hence, the literature review on food security, livelihood improvement, and environmental resources conservation expressed that homestead agroforestry possessed a great connection with sustainable development goals. Homesteads of Bangladesh possess a satisfactory plant species diversity and coverage that facilitate species conservation and provides food, fuel, or timber, besides contributing to livelihood improvement and resource conservation. As a result, the contribution is praiseworthy in achieving SDGs and fulfilling the relevant targets. Therefore, Bangladesh has enormous scope to utilize its potential success. Although this sector is exposed to limitations such as the rapid practice of conventional planting systems and monoculture cropping patterns, anthropogenic and environmental influence, lack of technology and institutional support, backdated knowledge, scarcity of land, and lack of enthusiasm towards the practices. The elimination of such constraints through a structurally recommended strategic approach in terms of socio-economic development, conservation practices, technological advancement, institutional support improvement, sustainable land utilization, intensive research, and homestead agroforestry program implementation can help in the successful execution of sustainable development goals. Fruitful consequences can be derived by imposing potential concerns on this sector.

Funding statement

This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not for profit sectors.

Declaration of competing interest

There is no conflict of interest.

Appendix. List of Species Mentioned with their Scientific Name

English Name	Local Name	Scientific Name
Acacia Almond Aroid Bamboo Banana Bead tree Beechwood Beleric Bengal Bamboo Betel nut Bitter Gourd Black berry Bottle gourd Brinjal Bur flower tree Caesalpinia Cassia Tree Chapalish Chili Citrus Coconut Coral tree Coriander Country bean Crab Grass Date palm Drumstick Earleaf Acacia Elephant ear Eucalyptus Giant Bamboo Giant Taro Ginger Green Chiretta Greengram Guava Gum Arabic tree Hog plum Holy basil Indian pennywort Ipil Ipil Indian ash tree Jackfruit	Akashmoni Kathbadam Aroid Bash Kola Ghora neem/Bokain Gamar Bohera Bangla bash Supari Korola Jam Lau Begun Kadam Krishnachura Minjiri ful Chapalish Morich Citrus Narkel Mandar Dhone gach Shim Dhurba grass Khejur Sajina Sonajhuri Kochu/taro Eucalyptus Bansh Man kochu Ada Kalomegh Mungbean Peyara Babla Amra Tulsi Thankuni Ipil ipil Jhika Kathal	Acacia auriculiformis Terminalia catappa Araceae spp. Bambusa spp Musa spp. Melia azedarach Gamelina arborea Terminalia bellirica Bambusa tulda Areca catechu Momordica charantia Syzygium cumini Lagenaria siceraria Solanum melongena L. Anthocephallus chinensis Delonix regia Cassia siamea Artocarpus lacucha Capsicum spp. Citrus spp. Cocos nucifera Erythrina orientalis Coriandrum sativum Lablab purpureus Cynodon dactylon Phoenix sylvestris Moringa oliferia Acacia auriculiformis Xanthosoma nigrum Eucalyptus camaldulensis Bambua balocooa Alocasia indica Zingiber officinale Andrographis paniculata Vigna radiata Psidium guava L. Acacia nilotica Spondias pinnata Ocimuum tenuiflorum Centella asiatica Leucaena leucocephala Lannea coromandelica Artocarpus heterophyllus
Jute Khair Lac tree Lemon Litchi Mahogany Malabar Nut Tree Mango Malabar spinach Mint Neem Night Queen Northern rata Onion Palmyra palm Papaya Pineapple Plum/Ber/jujube Pomegranate Pomelo Queen flower Raintree Rata tree Red Amaranth Red silk cotton Sal Sapodilla Screw pine Shirish Siris tree Silk tree Sissoo Spinach Sponge gourd Stramonium Tamarind Taro Teak Toona Turmeric Velvety apple Wood Apple Yard long bean/Snake bean	Pat shak Khoyer Kusum tree Lebu Litchu Mahogany Basok Aam Pui shak Pudina Neem Jasmine Rata Piyaj Tal Pepe Anarosh Boroi/kul Dalim Jambura Jarul Raintree Rata Lal note shak Shimul Shal Sofeda Kaora/Kewra Sada koroi Raj koroi Sirish gach Sissoo Palong shak Dhundul Datura Tentul Taro Shegun Toona Holud Gab Bel Borboti	Corchorus spp. Senegalia catechu Ceylon oak Citrus limon Litchi synensis Swietenia macrophylla Justicia adhatoda Mangifera indica Basella alba Mentha spicata Azadirachta indica Cestrum nocturnum Metrosideros robusta Allium cepa Borassus flabellifer Carica papaya Ananas comosum Ziziphus jujube Punica granatum Citrus maxima Lagerstroemia speciosa Albizia saman Metrosideros robusta Amaranthus cruentus Bombax ceiba Shorea robusta Manikara zapota Sonneratia alba Albizia lebbeck Albizia richardiana Albizia julibrissin Dalbargia sissoo Spinacia oleracea Luffa spp. Datura metel Tamarindus indica Colocasia nymphaepholia Colocasia alba Tectona grandis Toona sinensis Curcuma longa Piospyros discolor Aegle marmelos Vigna sesquipedalis