Skip to main content
The Indian Journal of Medical Research logoLink to The Indian Journal of Medical Research
. 2023 Jan 5;156(2):275–283. doi: 10.4103/ijmr.ijmr_3209_21

Health status of Koraga community: A pilot study among a particularly vulnerable tribal group of Udupi District, Karnataka, India

Sneha Deepak Mallya 1, Shyamsundar Shreedhar 3, Deepak Sudhakaran 1, B Aravindhkumar 4, Suma Nair 5, Ranjitha S Shetty 1,2,
PMCID: PMC10057362  PMID: 36629187

Abstract

Background & objectives:

Undertaking tribe-specific assessment of health status provides the required data for planning appropriate interventions. Hence, a study was conducted to assess the health profile of the Koraga tribe.

Methods:

This community-based cross-sectional study was conducted among a particularly vulnerable tribal group, the Koragas residing in the Udupi district. Data were collected using a pro forma and were analyzed using the SPSS software version 16.0.

Results:

A total of 273 participants aged ≥18 yr and 94 children aged ≤17 yr were recruited through screening and referral services organized in Koraga hamlets of the Udupi district. Among the adults, 59.7 per cent were females and their median age was 35 yr. About 13.9 per cent had elevated blood pressure and 18.4 per cent had impaired/elevated random blood sugar levels. About 47.6 per cent were underweight and 35.2 per cent were anaemic. Multivariate logistic regression analysis showed that individuals with morbidities were more likely to be aged ≥45 yr [45-60 yr: adjusted odds ratio (AOR)=4.3; 95 per cent confidence interval (CI)=1.3-13.8 and >60 yr: AOR=6.4; 95 per cent CI=1.7-23.7] and overweight or obese [23-24.9 kg/m2: AOR=8.1; 95% CI=1.3-48.2 and >25 kg/m2: AOR=7.9; 95% CI=1.6-38.4]. Of the 26 Koraga children aged ≤5 yr, 30.7 and 42.3 per cent had their height for age and weight for age below the third percentile, respectively. Further, 15.3 per cent of under-five children and 27.9 per cent of 6-17 yr old children were severely wasted. About 21.2 per cent of the children aged ≤17 yr were found to be anaemic and 56.3 per cent had symptoms of respiratory tract infection in the past 15 days.

Interpretation & conclusions:

Malnutrition was prevalent among Koraga adults and children, which warrants designing and implementing appropriate social and health interventions in this population.

Keywords: Demography, health, Koraga, morbidities, PVTG, tribal population


Tribal communities are an integral part of the Indian population and constitute about 8.6 per cent of the total population1. Of the 705 Scheduled Tribes (STs) spread across the country, 75 of them have been categorized as particularly vulnerable tribal groups (PVTGs) by the Government of India based on prevailing factors in these communities such as pre-agriculture level of technology, subsistent level of economy low level of literacy and a declining or stagnant population2. Compared to the general population and other tribal populations, the health indicators among PVTGs are poor. Inadequate utilization of maternal and child health services, poor health-seeking behaviour and wide prevalence of substance abuse have made them vulnerable to malnutrition, anaemia and communicable diseases2. Similarly, a previously published review3 on anthropometric and sociodemographic factors showed that majority of adult men and women from various tribal populations across India were found to be undernourished (males: 5-94.9; females: 4.2-98.0%), with Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Jharkhand and Kerala having a prevalence of over 50 per cent. A comprehensive national nutritional survey among 5-19 yr old tribal children and adolescents across various States of India showed that over 20 per cent of them were undernourished4.

Approximately 10 per cent of the total tribal population of India resides in Karnataka1. Further, within Karnataka, 6.9 per cent of the population belongs to various tribal communities, of which Jenu Kuruba and Koraga tribes have been classified as PVTGs. Although limited information is available regarding their health status, the existing literature suggests that their health literacy is inadequate and they lack access to quality healthcare facilities, leading to their poor health outcomes5-7.

Koragas mainly reside in the Udupi and Dakshina Kannada districts of Karnataka8. Addressing issues pertaining to this vulnerable population is in line with achieving India’s commitment for United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and achieving universal health coverage (UHC). Hence, this study was carried out with the objective of assessing health status and to study the sociodemographic factors associated with it among the Koraga tribe, residing in the Udupi district of Karnataka.

Material & Methods

The total Koraga tribe population is 14,794 in Karnataka and the majority (approximately 68%) inhabits all the blocks of Udupi district. This cross-sectional study was conducted during September 2018 - November 2019, among the Koraga population residing in the Udupi district of Karnataka. The study was carried out by the department of Community Medicine, Kasturba Medical College (KMC) and Kasturba Hospital (KH), Manipal, in collaboration with the District Health and Family Welfare Department, the Integrated Tribal Development Project (ITDP) of Udupi and local tribal community leaders. Prior permissions were obtained from District Health and Family Welfare Department and ITDP, Udupi district, for undertaking this study. Institutional Ethics Committee approval for the study was obtained from KMC and KH, Manipal. A waiver of consent was granted since this was a retrospective study based on available medical records with no medical intervention or risk to individual’s safety.

Tribal people from seven selected remote tribal hamlets were informed about the date and time of screening and referral services provided at their localities on a pre-specified day. Beneficiaries included adult members, adolescents as well as children from the Koraga community. The survey team comprised doctors, nurses and laboratory technicians. The study proforma was administered by the doctors, nurses facilitated the screening activities and laboratory technicians performed the required blood tests.

Sociodemographic and health-related information was collected using a semi-structured questionnaire. The socio-economic status (SES) was assessed using the modified BG Prasad Scale9.

Height and weight of individuals aged ≥18 yr were measured as per the World Health Organization (WHO) standards and body mass index (BMI) was calculated and classified using the Asian Indian guidelines10,11. Blood pressure was measured and classified as per the Joint National Committee-VIII guidelines12. Random blood sugar (RBS) level was estimated using a hand-held glucometer for all adults >30 yr and was classified as per the American Diabetes Association guidelines13. Haemoglobin level was estimated using a portable haemoglobinometer and was classified using the WHO guidelines14.

Height and weight for age and weight for height were measured and classified for children ≤5 yr using the WHO 2006 guidelines and BMI, age and gender centiles were calculated for children between 6-17 yr using Indian Academy of Paediatrics 2015 guidelines15,16. Haemoglobin level was estimated for a sub-sample of children and classified using the WHO guidelines14.

Statistical analysis: Data were analyzed using the SPSS version 16.0 (Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) for Windows, Version 16.0. SPSS Inc. Released 2007, Chicago, IL, USA). Results were expressed as frequencies and proportions. Continuous variables were presented as median with interquartile range (IQR) wherever applicable. Multivariate logistic regression analysis was done to find out the association between the presence of any morbidity and various background characteristics and the strength of association was expressed as odd’s ratio (OR) and adjusted OR with 95 per cent confidence interval (CI).

Results

As shown in Table I, the study included a total of 273 individuals aged ≥18 yr of which 59.7 per cent were females. The median age (IQR) of the study participants was 35.0 yr (25.5-47.0). About 38.5 per cent of the study participants had not received any formal education and although three fourth of them were employed at the time of the study, majority (86.9%) were involved in unskilled work. Almost two-third (61.9%) of the study participants were married and over half of the families were of nuclear type (51.6%). Majority of them (81.7%) belonged to a social class of 4 and 5.

Table I.

Background characteristics of the study participants aged ≥18 yr (n=273)

Characteristics Frequency

Males (n=110) n (%) Females (n=163) n (%) Total n (%)
Age (yr)
18-45 82 (74.5) 118 (72.4) 200 (73.3)
46-60 15 (13.6) 32 (19.6) 47 (17.2)
>60 13 (11.8) 13 (8.0) 26 (9.5)
Educational status
Illiterate 35 (31.8) 70 (42.9) 105 (38.5)
Literate 75 (68.2) 93 (57.1) 168 (61.5)
Current occupation status
Employed 99 (90.0) 108 (66.3) 207 (75.8)
Unemployed 11 (10.0) 55 (33.7) 66 (24.2)
Marital status
Married 61 (55.5) 108 (66.3) 169 (61.9)
Unmarried 49 (44.5) 35 (21.5) 84 (30.8)
Widowed/separated 0 20 (12.3) 20 (7.3)
Type of family
Joint 33 (30.0) 61 (37.4) 94 (34.4)
Nuclear 60 (54.5) 81 (49.7) 141 (51.6)
Three generation 17 (15.5) 21 (12.9) 38 (13.9)
SES
Class 2 and 3 (upper middle and middle) 26 (23.6) 24 (14.7) 50 (18.3)
Class 4 and 5 (lower middle and lower) 84 (76.4) 139 (85.3) 223 (81.7)
Tobacco use
Ever 61 (55.5) 72 (44.2) 133 (48.7)
Never 49 (44.5) 91 (55.8) 140 (51.3)
Alcohol use
Ever 22 (20.0) 8 (4.9) 30 (11.0)
Never 88 (80.0) 155 (95.1) 243 (89.0)
Family history of hypertension
Yes 2 (1.8) 7 (4.3) 9 (3.3)
No 108 (98.2) 156 (95.7) 264 (96.7)
Family history of diabetes
Yes 3 (2.7) 3 (1.8) 6 (2.2)
No 107 (97.3) 160 (98.2) 267 (97.8)
BMI
<18.5 (underweight) 48 (43.6) 82 (50.3) 130 (47.6)
18.5-22.9 (normal) 55 (50.0) 62 (38.0) 117 (42.9)
23.0-24.9 (overweight) 2 (1.8) 9 (5.5) 11 (4.0)
≥25 (obese) 5 (4.5) 10 (6.1) 15 (5.5)

BMI, body mass index; SES, socio-economic status

Tobacco use was found to be prevalent, with almost half of the population (48.7%) claiming to have ever used some form of tobacco. Among them, nine smoked bidis/cigarettes [frequency of use: 2-10/day; median (IQR) duration of use: 6 (2.5-20) years]. Among 126 users of smokeless tobacco, 106 (84.1%) used up to five packets per day [median (IQR) duration of use: 10 (3.-20.) years]. About 11 per cent of participants had ever consumed alcohol, 16 consumed daily, duration of use was 15 (5-20) years.

Family history of hypertension and diabetes was reported by only nine (3.3%) and six (2.2%) individuals. Nearly 50 per cent of the individuals were found to be underweight.

Of the 273 study participants, 12 (4.4%) had at least one family member who was diagnosed with pulmonary tuberculosis (TB) in the past, while 15 (5.5%) reported to be diagnosed with pulmonary TB in the past. Further, 15 (5.5%) of the study participants had symptoms suggestive of pulmonary TB. Symptoms suggestive of respiratory infections were reported by 12.1 per cent and those suggestive of musculoskeletal disorders were reported by 9.9 per cent of the participants. Blood pressure was found to be elevated among 38 (13.9%) participants.

Table II shows that about 12.8 per cent (35/273) of the study participants self-reported previously diagnosed morbidities (participants reported one or more morbidities), with hypertension being the most common (9.5%), followed by diabetes (1.8%). Nonspecific symptoms were also reported by 12.8 per cent of the study participants. Of the study participants for whom RBS was estimated, it was found to be impaired/elevated (≥140 mg/dl) among 18.4 per cent and found to be significantly associated with age >35 yr (P=0.01). Prevalence of anaemia was found to be 35.2 per cent and only gender was found to be significantly associated with anaemia (P<0.05). The blood pressure was found to be elevated among 13.9 per cent and was significantly associated with higher age (P<0.001) and lower SES (P<0.05).

Table II.

Morbidity pattern among tribal individuals aged ≥18 yr (n=273)

Morbidities Frequency (%)
Self-reported morbidities
Hypertension 26 (9.5)
Diabetes 5 (1.8)
Mental illness 4 (1.5)
Asthma 2 (0.7)
Cardiovascular disease 2 (0.7)
System specific symptoms reported by the study participants
Respiratory system (cough with expectoration) 33 (12.1)
Musculoskeletal system (backache, difficulty in walking, shoulder pain) 27 (9.9)
Gastrointestinal system (burning in epigastric region) 8 (2.9)
Ocular (blurring of vision, pain in the eyes) 8 (2.9)
Genitourinary system (menstrual irregularities, vaginal discharge, burning micturition) 4 (1.5)
Cardiovascular system (chest pain) 2 (0.7)
Non-specific symptoms (fever, dizziness, fatigue, generalized body ache) 35 (12.8)
Abnormalities detected on examination
Nutritional status
Underweight 130 (47.6)
Obesity 15 (5.5)
Anaemia (n=238)* 96 (35.2)
Elevated blood pressure 38 (13.9)
Impaired/elevated RBS (n=158)# 29 (18.4)

*Haemoglobin level could be estimated only for these study participants; #RBS was estimated for study participants aged ≥30 yr. RBS, random blood sugar

About 43.6 per cent of the participants complained of one or more symptoms which indicated of existing health problems related to various body systems as shown in Table II. An adult male aged 24 yr had a growth in the oral cavity suggestive of malignancy. Most of these complaints were managed at health screening services itself or were referred wherever warranted. Medical officers of local primary health centres (PHCs) were informed about the same. Individuals with abnormal findings were linked to respective tribal community leaders who facilitated their further management and follow up at local primary health centres.

As shown in Table III, the univariate analysis found that individuals with morbidities were more likely to be aged >45 yr, to be illiterate, to be widowed/separated, alcohol consumers and obese (BMI >23 kg/m2). However, on multivariate logistic regression analysis, only higher age groups (>45 yr) and BMI >23 kg/m2 were found to be the significant predictors of the presence of morbidities.

Table III.

Multivariate logistic regression analysis depicting association between the presence of morbidities and socio-demographic variables among the participants (n=273)

Variable Morbidity Crude OR (95% CI) AOR (95% CI)

Present (n=35), n (%) Absent (n=238), n (%)
Age (yr)
18-45 10 (4.0) 190 (95.0) 1 1
46-60 15 (31.9) 32 (68.1) 8.9 (3.6-21.5)* 4.3 (1.3-13.8)*
>60 10 (38.5) 16 (61.5) 11.8 (4.3-32.7)* 6.4 (1.7-23.7)*
Gender
Male 12 (10.9) 98 (89.1) 0.7 (0.3-1.5)
Female 23 (14.1) 140 (85.9) 1
Educational status
Illiterate 28 (26.7) 77 (73.3) 8.3 (3.4-19.9) 2.6 (0.7-9.1)
Literate 7 (4.2) 161 (95.8) 1 1
Current occupation status
Employed 24 (11.6) 183 (88.4) 1
Unemployed 11 (16.7) 55 (83.3) 1.5 (0.7-3.3)
Marital status
Married 24 (14.2) 145 (85.8) 1 1
Unmarried 4 (4.8) 80 (95.2) 0.3 (0.1-0.9) 1.0 (0.2-3.7)
Widowed/separated 7 (35.0) 13 (65.0) 3.2 (1.1-8.9) 2.2 (0.6-7.5)
Type of family
Joint 16 (17.0) 78 (83.0) 1
Nuclear 14 (9.9) 127 (90.1) 0.5 (0.2-1.1)
Three generation 5 (13.2) 33 (86.8) 0.7 (0.2-2.1)
SES
Class 2 and 3 3 (6.0) 47 (94.0) 2.6 (0.7-8.9)
Class 4 and 5 32 (14.3) 191 (85.7) 1
Tobacco use
Ever 20 (15.0) 113 (85.0) 1.4 (0.7-3.0)
Never 15 (10.7) 125 (89.3) 1
Alcohol use
Ever 9 (30.0) 21 (70.0) 3.5 (1.4-8.6) 2.7 (0.9-7.8)
Never 26 (10.7) 217 (89.3) 1 1
Family history of hypertension
Yes 1 (11.1) 8 (88.9) 0.8 (0.1-6.9)
No 34 (12.9) 230 (87.1) 1
Family history of diabetes
Yes 1 (16.7) 5 (83.3) 1.3 (0.1-12.1)
No 34 (12.7) 233 (87.3) 1
BMI (kg/m2)
<18.5 10 (8.5) 107 (91.5) 1.7 (0.7-3.8) 1.7 (0.6-4.5)
18.5-22.9 18 (13.8) 112 (86.2) 1 1
23-24.9 3 (27.3) 8 (72.7) 4.0 (0.9-17.5) 8.1 (1.3-48.2)*
≥25 4 (26.7) 11 (73.3) 3.8 (1.0-14.4)* 7.9 (1.6-38.4)*

P*<0.05. AOR, adjusted odds ratio; CI, confidence interval

The study included a total of 94 Koraga children of whom, 38.2 per cent were aged between 12-17 yr. Height for age and weight for age was below the third percentile among 30.7 and 42.3 per cent, respectively, among children aged ≤5 yr. Four (15.3%) children aged ≤5 yr, and 19 (27.9%) children aged 6-17 yr were found to be having severe wasting (Table IV).

Table IV.

Health profile of children (<18 yr) belonging to Koraga community

Characteristic Frequency (%) Total

Males Females
Age (yr) n=38 n=56 94
≤5 5 (13.2) 21 (37.5) 26
6-11 13 (34.2) 19 (33.9) 32
12-17 20 (52.6) 16 (28.6) 36
Educational status, ≥6 yr n=33 n=35 68
Studying in 1-7th standard 17 (51.5) 22 (62.9) 39
Studying in 8-10th standard 15 (45.5) 12 (34.3) 27
School dropouts/not attending school 1 (3.0) 1 (2.9) 2
Height for age, ≤5 yr n=5 n=21 26
<3rd percentile 3 (60.0) 5 (23.8) 8
3-97th percentile 1 (20.0) 15 (71.4) 16
>97thpercentile 1 (20.0) 1 (4.8) 2
Weight for age, ≤5 yr n=5 n=21 26
<3rd percentile 2 (40.0) 9 (42.9) 11
3-97th percentile 3 (60.0) 12 (57.1) 15
Weight for height, ≤5 yr n=5 n=21 26
≥−2SD (normal) 5 (100.0) 14 (66.7) 19
−2SD to−3SD (wasted) 0 3 (14.3) 3
Below−3SD (severely wasted) 0 4 (19.0) 4
BMI-age and gender centile, 6-17 yr n=33 n=35 68
≥−2SD (normal) 8 (24.2) 21 (60.0) 29
−2SD to−3SD (wasted) 11 (33.3) 9 (25.7) 20
Below−3SD (severely wasted) 14 (42.4) 5 (14.3) 19
Morbidities n=38 n=56 94
Respiratory infection* 20 (52.6) 33 (58.9) 53
Dental problems 3 (7.0) 4 (7.1) 7
Skin infections 1 (2.6) 4 (7.1) 5
Others 1 (2.6) 3 (5.3) 4

*History of respiratory infection was collected for the past 15 days. SD, standard deviation

As shown in Table IV, two-third (63.3%) of the children had respiratory infections, one child (≤5 yr) had a history of pulmonary TB in the past, and one child (aged eight years) had uncorrected cleft palate. Three male children aged between six and 17 yr had symptoms suggestive of pulmonary TB and were referred to the nearest PHC for further evaluation. About 24 (30.4%) children were not dewormed in the last six months and hence were given deworming tablets. Other morbidities included skin infections, musculoskeletal, genitourinary, gastrointestinal problems and vitamin A deficiency. Haemoglobin levels could be estimated only among 33 children and seven (21.2%) were found to be having anaemia.

Discussion

The study included a total of 367 individuals belonging to the Koraga community residing in the Udupi district of Karnataka.

In this study, only 11 per cent of the participants claimed to consume alcohol which is in contrast to other studies from Karnataka and Kerala reporting a higher proportion of their study population to be alcohol consumers (ranging from 25.9 to 36.2%)17,18 and a Gujarat study reporting a much lower proportion (5.5%)19. Similarly, the prevalence of tobacco use was 48.7 per cent among our study population, while a much higher prevalence (81.5%) was reported by Sajeev and Soman in Kerala18 and lower proportions were reported by other studies from Karnataka (smokers among men – 25.6%; tobacco chewers among women –24.8%)17 and Gujarat (ever smokers – 38.5%)19. The higher prevalence of tobacco use in our study could be due to their low SES and lower literacy levels.

In the present study, 47.6 per cent of those aged ≥18 yr were underweight, which is similar to the reports of various tribal studies across India3. However, it was much lower (19.3%) in the tribal population from Bandipur17. The overall prevalence of anaemia was 35.2 per cent which is similar to the findings of surveys conducted among tribes in Madhya Pradesh (38.6%)2 and Kerala (overall – 51%; males – 33.3%; females – 64.6%)20. In our study, females were found to be significantly associated with anaemia, whereas higher age and low SES were identified as the risk factors for anaemia in a study from Kerala20. Higher prevalence of anaemia and its association with females in the present study warrants further research on dietary patterns and any prevailing customs among this tribal population.

There is limited literature with respect to factors associated with overall morbidities among the tribal population of India. Most of the studies have focussed on a particular disease/health condition. In the present study, 5.2 per cent of the participants aged ≥18 yr had symptoms suggestive of pulmonary TB, which is slightly higher as compared to the reports of previous studies (ranging from 2.1 to 3.6%)21,22. A study by Patwa et al23 among the tribal population of Gujarat stated hypertension (4.5%), diabetes (1.7%) and cardiovascular diseases (1.6%) as commonly reported morbidities23. Although the prevalence of diabetes and cardiovascular diseases in the study is akin to our findings, the prevalence of hypertension was higher (9%) in our study. Prior studies among tribal populations in India have also reported a higher prevalence of hypertension ranging from 16.7 to 48.3 per cent18-20,24-26. Studies from Tamil Nadu and Uttarakhand reported the prevalence of diabetes to be 3.8 per cent and 6.9 per cent, respectively as compared to a lower prevalence in the present study25,26. This could be due to the differences in the age group of individuals included in each of these studies and due to the self-reported nature of data in the present study. A systematic review by Upadhyay et al27 showed the prevalence of diabetes among the tribal population to be ranging between 0.7 and 10.1 per cent in India. Age and BMI were significantly associated with the presence of any morbidity and similar findings were reported from a study by Sathiyanarayanan et al25.

The findings of our study showed that almost 42.3 per cent of children aged ≤5 yr had a low weight for age, 30.8 per cent had a low height for age and 15.4 per cent had a low weight for height which is supported by the study findings of Divakar et al28 (45.03% of under-five children being malnourished) and Narayanappa et al29 (33.1% and 35.7% of Jenukuruba tribal children having low height for age and low weight for age respectively). Furthermore, the prevalence of undernutrition among 6-17 yr old children was found to be 57.3 per cent (<−2SD BMI for age and gender centile) in our study, which is much higher than that reported from a nationwide survey in which it ranged from 18-30 per cent among 5-19 yr old tribal children and adolescents4. Prevalence of anaemia in this age group was 21.2 per cent while a higher prevalence was reported from other studies conducted in Karnataka (≤15 yr - 82.7%)29 and Madhya Pradesh (≤5 yr - 62.1%; 6-14 yr - 58.2%)2.

The commonly reported morbidities among children in our study were respiratory infections followed by skin infections and dental problems, which is in concordance with the findings from the study by Divakar et al28. In our study, only 5.3 per cent of the children had skin infections which are in contrast to that reported by Narayanappa et al29 which reported skin infections in at least one-fifth of the children. It also reported a substantial proportion of children to be having dental problems (68.4%), while only 7.4 per cent had dental problems in the present study. Similarly, only one child was found to have Bitot’s spots in our study in contrast to 16.4 per cent children in the above-mentioned study29.

The current study provides baseline information about the health problems among Koragas, majority of whom dwel in the Udupi district and hence are homogeneous, the findings and so the results could be generalized to this tribe within the district. However, this study also had some limitations; for instance, the results of the study could be an overestimation of the true picture of this tribal population as data were collected through specially organized screening and referral services. However, the prevalence of morbidities could be an underestimation as we relied on self-reported information. Low proportion of alcohol consumers could mainly be due to underreporting as there is a stigma towards this habit in the community. Haemoglobin level could not be assessed for all the participants as some refused to get this test done. Similarly, RBS levels were used for the assessment of glycaemic status due to feasibility issues.

The study findings were disseminated to stakeholders of ITDP and District Health and Family Welfare Department, and further steps were planned by the team. Health conditions such as malnutrition and anaemia were found to be prevalent among Koragas. Hence, designing targeted health interventions to address these health problems among Koraga individuals through robust awareness programmes and sustained efforts is the need of the hour. Furthermore, as old age and BMI were found to be associated with one or more health conditions, it is imperative to plan community-based studies in the future to explore the lifestyle, health-seeking behaviour and specific cultural practices and their association with morbidities in this population. Utilization of existing tribal-specific welfare measures could be further enhanced by involving the local tribal leaders in the planning and execution of programmes.

Acknowledgment:

The authors acknowledge the support received from District Health and Family Welfare Department, Udupi, Integrated Tribal Development Project, Udupi, Samagra Grameena Ashrama, Shirva, Udupi, local Gram Panchayats and tribal community leaders.

Footnotes

Financial support & sponsorship: None.

Conflicts of Interest: None.

References

  • 1.Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Government of India. State / UT wise overall population, ST population, percentage of STs in India / State to total population of India. [accessed on September 2, 2022]. Available from: https://tribal.nic.in/ST/Statistics8518.pdf .
  • 2.Ministry of Health and Family Welfare and Ministry of Tribal Affairs, Government of India. Report of the expert committee on Tribal Health. Tribal health in India: Bridging the gap and a roadmap for the future. [accessed on September 2, 2022]. Available from: http://tribalhealthreport.in/full-report/
  • 3.Subal Das S, Kaushik Bose K. Adult tribal malnutrition in India:An anthropometric and socio-demographic review. Anthropol Rev. 2015;78:47–65. [Google Scholar]
  • 4.Poshan Abhiyaan. National Health Mission. Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India. Comprehensive national nutrition survey 2016-2018. [accessed on April 5, 2022]. Available from: https://nhm.gov.in/WriteReadData/l892s/1405796031571201348.pdf .
  • 5.Narain JP. Health of tribal populations in India:How long can we afford to neglect? Indian J Med Res. 2019;149:313–6. doi: 10.4103/ijmr.IJMR_2079_18. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 6.Subramanian SV, Davey Smith G, Subramanyam M. Indigenous health and socioeconomic status in India. PLoS Med. 2006;3:e421. doi: 10.1371/journal.pmed.0030421. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 7.Mohindra KS, Labonté R. A systematic review of population health interventions and Scheduled Tribes in India. BMC Public Health. 2010;10:438. doi: 10.1186/1471-2458-10-438. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 8.Sabar B. Food insecurity and coping strategies:A tale of two particularly vulnerable tribal groups in Karnataka. J Asian Afr Stud. 2016;51:718–41. [Google Scholar]
  • 9.Majumder S. Socioeconomic status scales:Revised Kuppuswamy, BG Prasad, and Udai Pareekh's scale updated for 2021. J Family Med Prim Care. 2021;10:3964–7. doi: 10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_600_21. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 10.World Health Organisation. WHO STEPS surveillance manual: WHO STEP wise approach to chronic disease risk-factor surveillance. [accessed on September 2, 2022]. Available from: https://cdn.who.int/media/docs/default-source/ncds/ncd-surveillance/steps/steps-manual.pdf?sfvrsn=c281673d_7 .
  • 11.Misra A, Chowbey P, Makkar BM, Vikram NK, Wasir JS, Chadha D, et al. Consensus statement for diagnosis of obesity, abdominal obesity and the metabolic syndrome for Asian Indians and recommendations for physical activity, medical and surgical management. J Assoc Physicians India. 2009;57:163–70. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 12.James PA, Oparil S, Carter BL, Cushman WC, Dennison-Himmelfarb C, Handler J, et al. 2014 evidence-based guideline for the management of high blood pressure in adults:Report from the panel members appointed to the Eighth Joint National Committee (JNC 8) JAMA. 2014;311:507–20. doi: 10.1001/jama.2013.284427. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 13.American Diabetes Association. Improving care and promoting health in populations: Standards of medical care in diabetes-2019. Diabetes Care. 2019;42:S7–12. doi: 10.2337/dc19-S001. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 14.World Health Organization. Haemoglobin concentrations for the diagnosis of anaemia and assessment of severity. [accessed on September 2, 2022]. Available from: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/85839/WHO_NMH_NHD_MNM_11.1_eng.pdf .
  • 15.WHO Multicentre Growth Reference Study Group. WHO Child Growth Standards based on length/height, weight and age. Acta Pediatr. 2006;450((Suppl)):76–85. doi: 10.1111/j.1651-2227.2006.tb02378.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 16.Khadilkar VV, Khadilkar AV. Revised Indian Academy of Pediatrics 2015 growth charts for height, weight and body mass index for 5-18-year-old Indian children. Indian J Endocrinol Metab. 2015;19:470–6. doi: 10.4103/2230-8210.159028. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 17.Siddalingappa H, Hoogar V, Kumar SD, Pradeep TS, Renuka M. Sociodemographic and healthcare profile of tribal people in Bandipur Tiger Reserve area, Mysore, Karnataka, India. Int J Community Med Public Health. 2016;3:2655–60. [Google Scholar]
  • 18.Sajeev P, Soman B. Prevalence of noncommunicable disease risk factors among the Kani tribe in Thiruvananthapuram district, Kerala. Indian Heart J. 2018;70:598–603. doi: 10.1016/j.ihj.2018.01.022. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 19.Tiwari RR. Hypertension and epidemiological factors among tribal labour population in Gujarat. Indian J Public Health. 2008;52:144–6. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 20.Ismail IM, Kahkashan A, Antony A, Sobhith VK. Role of socio-demographic and cultural factors on anemia in a tribal population of North Kerala, India. Int J Community Med Public Health. 2017;3:1183–8. [Google Scholar]
  • 21.Purty AJ, Mishra AK, Chauhan RC, Prahankumar R, Stalin P, Bazroy J. Burden of pulmonary tuberculosis among tribal population:A cross-sectional study in tribal areas of Maharashtra, India. Indian J Community Med. 2019;44:17–20. doi: 10.4103/ijcm.IJCM_120_18. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 22.Thomas BE, Thiruvengadam K, Vedhachalam C, Srividya A, Rao VG, Vijayachari P, et al. Prevalence of pulmonary tuberculosis among the tribal populations in India. PLoS One. 2021;16:e0251519. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0251519. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 23.Patwa JR, Patel RM, Nagar SS, Pandit NB. Study of self-reported morbidity profile among the rural tribal population in a district of Western India. Healthline J. 2020;11:16–22. [Google Scholar]
  • 24.Divakar SV, Balaji PA, Ali SS. Morbidity pattern in tribals and non tribals above the age of 5 years of Gundlupet forest area, Mysore district, India. J Dr NTR Univ Health Sci. 2012;1:233–8. [Google Scholar]
  • 25.Sathiyanarayanan S, Muthunarayanan L, Devaparthasarathy TA. Changing perspectives in tribal health:Rising prevalence of lifestyle diseases among tribal population in India. Indian J Community Med. 2019;44:342–6. doi: 10.4103/ijcm.IJCM_40_19. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 26.Kandpal V, Sachdeva MP, Saraswathy KN. An assessment study of CVD related risk factors in a tribal population of India. BMC Public Health. 2016;16:434. doi: 10.1186/s12889-016-3106-x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 27.Upadhyay RP, Misra P, Chellaiyan VG, Das TK, Adhikary M, Chinnakali P, et al. Burden of diabetes mellitus and prediabetes in tribal population of India:A systematic review. Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2013;102:1–7. doi: 10.1016/j.diabres.2013.06.011. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 28.Divakar SV, Balaji PA, Poornima S, Varne SR, Ali SS, Puttaswamy M. A comparative assessment of nutritional and health status between tribal and nontribal under five children of Mysore, India. Muller J Med Sci Res. 2013;4:82–5. [Google Scholar]
  • 29.Narayanappa D, Rajani HS, Kumar KJ, Manjunath VG. Nutritional and health status of jenukuruba tribal children in Mysore district. Pediatr Rev Int J Pediatr Res. 2015;2:113–9. [Google Scholar]

Articles from The Indian Journal of Medical Research are provided here courtesy of Scientific Scholar

RESOURCES