Table 1.
Neuroactive metabiotics of intestinal microbiota in a healthy organism and their effects on depression and metabolic depression.
| Metabiotics | Gut Microbiota | Metabiotic Effect on the Host Organism | Ref. | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) | Acetate |
Akkermansia muciniphila Bacteroides spp. Bifidobacterium spp. Prevotella spp. Ruminococcus spp. |
Inhibition of the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines by AhR agonists. Maintenance of the microglial homeostasis by AhR (in vitro). Stimulation of the secretion of intestinal PYY hormones and GLP-1 resulting in decreased appetite. Enhancement of leptin production. Precursors for cholesterol and fatty acids synthesis. | [69,75,76] |
| Butyrate |
Anaerostipes spp. Bifidobacterium infantis Butyricicoccus pullicaecorum Coprococcus catus Coprococcus comes Coprococcus eutactus Clostridium tyrobutyricum Eubacterium hallii Eubacterium rectale Faecalibacterium prausnitzii Lactobacillus paracasei Lactobacillus plantarum Roseburia spp. |
Inhibition of the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines by AhR agonists. Suppression of the HDAC activity. Reduction in intestinal permeability and inflammation. Microglial homeostasis maintenance by AhR. Inhibition of the lysolecithin-induced demyelination and enhancement of remyelination (in vitro). Stimulation of the secretion of intestinal PYY hormones and GLP-1 resulting in decreased appetite. Inhibition of fat accumulation in adipocytes. Enhancement of leptin production. Substrate of gluconeogenesis. | [47,69,75,76,77,78,79,80,81] | |
| Propionate |
Bacteroides spp. Phascolarctobacterium succinatutens Dialister spp. Veillonella spp. |
Inhibition of the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines by AhR agonists. Suppression of the HDAC activity. Regulation of microglial homeostasis. Differentiation of Treg-cell. Reduction in the production of IL-12. Enhancement of IL-10 production. Stimulation of fat storage in adipose tissue. Stimulation of intestinal epithelial integrity. Enhancement of the oxidation of fatty acids. Stimulation of mucin production. | [69,75,76,77] | |
| Lactate |
Bacteroides spp. Bifidobacterium adolescentis Lactobacillus spp. |
Promotion of brain health during exercise. Induction of the expression of immediate early genes and cerebral angiogenesis. Substrate for conversion into butyrate and propionate. | [82,83] | |
| Tryptophan metabolites | Indole-3-acetic acid |
Bacteroides spp. Bifidobacterium adolescentis Bifidobacterium. longum Bifidobacterium pseudolongum Clostridium spp. Enterobacter cloacae Lactobacillus spp. |
Reduction in the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines by AhR ligands. Attenuation of the severity of intestinal inflammation. | [70,84,85] |
| Indole-3-aldehyde |
Lactobacillus acidophilus
Lactobacillus reuteri |
AhR ligands. Maintenance of intestinal homeostasis by an increase in AhR-dependent interleukin-22 transcription. Activation of cell lymphoids and gaining resistance against pathogens. | [41,84,86] | |
| Indole-3-propionic acid |
Clostridium spp. Peptostreptococcus spp. |
AhR ligands and a free radical scavenger. Protection against amyloid β in Alzheimer’s disorder. Help in better insulin secretion and sensitivity and reduction in type 2 diabetes. | [84,87,88] | |
| Indole acrylic acid |
Clostridium sporogenes Peptostreptococcus spp. |
AhR ligands. Anti-inflammatory function and enhancement of the intestinal epithelial barrier. | [84,89] | |
| Lipoteichoic acid | Bifidobacterium animalis | Fat-reducing properties by fat deposition via the IGF-1 pathway. | [90] | |
AhR—aryl hydrocarbon receptor; HDACs—histone deacetylases; IGF-1—insulin-like growth factor-1; IL—interleukin; PYY—peptide YY.