Abstract
From November 2021 to February 2022, 37 swine nutritionists representing 29 production systems and 8 nutrition supplier companies in the United States were surveyed about added vitamin and trace mineral concentrations in swine diets. Respondents were asked to provide vitamin premix and trace mineral concentrations, inclusion rates, and weight ranges associated with feeding phases. Survey participants represented 4.38 million sows, or 72% of the U.S. industry. Data were compiled into three nursery phases (phase 1, weaning to 7 kg; phase 2, 7 to 11 kg; and phase 3, 11 to 23 kg), three finishing phases (23 to 55 kg; 55 to 100 kg; 100 kg to market), gilt development, gestation, lactation, and boar. Within each dietary phase, the vitamins and trace minerals of interest included: vitamins A, D, E, and K, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, biotin, folic acid, vitamin B12, choline, vitamin C, carnitine, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, selenium, zinc, cobalt, and chromium. Descriptive statistics used included: average, weighted average (determined by the total number of sows represented), median, minimum, maximum, 25th percentile (lowest quartile), and 75th percentile (highest quartile). In addition, all average supplementation rates for vitamins and trace minerals within each phase of production were compared to the requirement estimates reported in the NRC (2012). Nutritionists generally supplemented vitamins and trace minerals well above the NRC (2012) requirement estimates. However, great variation among respondents was observed in all vitamins and trace minerals, particularly in the fat-soluble vitamins. Also, the use of alternative sources of vitamin D [25(OH)D3], E (natural, d-alpha-tocopherol), and organic or chelated minerals like copper, manganese, selenium, and zinc were being used by approximately 40% of the respondents, primarily in breeding herd and nursery diets. Understanding current supplementation practices may help develop research trials to test different vitamin and trace mineral inclusions and provide an industry benchmark of vitamin and trace mineral usage.
Keywords: diet formulation, nutrition, survey, swine, trace minerals, vitamins
Nutritionists generally supplement vitamins and trace minerals well above the NRC (2012)requirements. This survey provides an industry benchmark of current vitamin and trace mineral supplementation practices and will help develop research trials to test different vitamin and trace mineral inclusions.
INTRODUCTION
Vitamins and trace minerals are added to swine diets to contribute to health and performance. Depending on the production phase or stage, pigs require a different amount of each vitamin and trace mineral. However, most commercial diets are often formulated well above the NRC (2012) requirement estimates for three main reasons. First, nutritionists want to maintain a margin of safety to account for potential reductions in the bioavailability of vitamins resulting from unfavorable storage conditions or excessive storage time. Second, current knowledge related to the animal’s requirements is lacking because relatively little research is conducted on vitamin and trace minerals. Finally, vitamins and trace minerals correspond to a small portion of the final diet cost, so a wide margin of safety is not of great economic significance. Seven years ago, a 2.3 million sow survey (Flohr et al., 2016) confirmed that, in the United States, supplementation rates higher than the NRC (2012) are a common practice. Additionally, that survey showed a considerable variation in the levels used by each swine operation. This variation might be attributed to differences in health status, vitamin and trace mineral sources, feed mill characteristics, or even to nutritionists’ formulation philosophy. Also, two other international surveys were published summarizing added vitamins and trace minerals concentrations in swine diets in Brazil (Dalto and da Silva, 2020) and China (Yang et al., 2021). These also showed levels added with a wide margin of safety over requirement estimates.
In 2018, there were vitamin shortages that resulted in nutritionists reducing inclusion rates for some vitamins and it is not clear if the resulting supplementation rates remained or were again increased after the vitamin supply became adequate. Because it has been 7 yr since the last U.S. survey (Flohr et al., 2016), and 10 yr since the previous NRC publication, our goal was to update the vitamin and trace mineral concentrations used and survey a greater portion of the industry. With this new information, current supplementation levels will be established for future research and to benchmark nutritionist’s formulation strategies.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The survey procedures followed the same as Flohr et al. (2016). Nutritionists from integrated swine production companies and nutrition supplier companies were contacted via email or phone from November 2021 to February 2022. They were asked if they were willing to participate and if they accepted, they selected how they preferred to share the information: 1) receive the survey spreadsheet to fill out themselves; 2) a phone call interview; or 3) provide premix formulas, and inclusion rate in each diet.
The survey aimed to identify industry levels of added vitamins and trace minerals in complete diets based on the production phase. Data were gathered into three nursery phases (phase 1, weaning to 7 kg; phase 2, 7 to 11 kg; and phase 3, 11 to 23 kg), three finishing phases (23 to 55 kg; 55 to 100 kg; 100 kg to market), gilt development, gestation, lactation, and boar.
Within each dietary phase, the vitamins and trace minerals of interest were: vitamins A, D, E, and K (menadione), thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, pyridoxine, biotin, folic acid, vitamin B12, choline, vitamin C (ascorbic acid), carnitine, copper, iodine, iron, manganese, selenium, zinc, cobalt, and chromium.
Results were compiled and pooled to determine descriptive statistics in an Excel spreadsheet (Microsoft, Redmond, WA). Descriptive statistics used included: average, weighted average (determined by the total number of sows represented), median, minimum, maximum, 25th percentile (lowest quartile), and 75th percentile (highest quartile). All values were determined using Excel formula functions, including average, standard deviation (STDEV.S), median, minimum (MIN), maximum (MAX), and 25th and 75th percentiles (QUARTILE. EXC). Weighted averages were calculated using the SUMPRODUCT function of Excel, in which the participant supplementation rate was multiplied by the sow herd size, values summarized, and then divided by the total number of sows for all participants. Average supplementation rates for vitamins and trace minerals within each phase of production were then compared to NRC (2012) total dietary requirement estimates to quantify supplementation rates of the industry compared to published requirement estimates.
RESULTS
Nursery
Phase 1 (weaning to 7 kg) nursery diets (Table 1) supplementation rates were provided by 29 production systems and 7 nutrition supplier companies totaling approximately 4,245,700 sows [70%, Successful Farmer (2021)] of the U.S. industry. The average fat and water-soluble vitamin supplementation rate ranged from 4.3 to 11.8 and 0.6 to 12.7 times the NRC (2012) requirement estimates, respectively. Vitamin D and folic acid were greatest with additions of 11.8 and 12.7 times the NRC (2012) estimates, respectively. Eleven of the 36 respondents were supplying vitamin D through 25-Hydroxyvitamin D3 or as a percentage of the vitamin D supplied and two respondents specified natural vitamin E as the only vitamin E source or as a percentage of the vitamin E supplied in the diet (Table 2). Choline was supplemented below NRC estimates, and this is probably because the values reported are only from added choline, thus, not considering choline sourced from other diet ingredients. Trace minerals supplementation ranged between 1.0 and 27.9 times their requirement estimates. Due to pharmacological purposes, zinc and copper were supplemented at 27.9 and 16.1 times the NRC (2012), respectively. Some respondents reported using some sort of organic or chelated mineral source for Cu (12), Mn (11), Se (18), and Zn (9).
Table 1.
Added vitamin and trace mineral concentrations in phase 1 nursery diets (weaning to 7 kg)
| Count, N1 | Weighted average2 | Average | Ratio to NRC | Standard deviation | Low | 25% | Median | 75% | High | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vitamins | ||||||||||
| A, IU/kg | 36 | 10,878 | 9,418 | 4.28 | 2,975 | 3,750 | 8,186 | 9,922 | 11,999 | 15,400 |
| D, IU/kg | 36 | 2,397 | 2,601 | 11.8 | 1,605 | 1,389 | 1,653 | 2,094 | 3,000 | 10,494 |
| E, IU/kg | 36 | 93.4 | 78.9 | 4.93 | 37.5 | 20.0 | 47.4 | 75.0 | 101.4 | 198.3 |
| K, mg/kg | 36 | 3.74 | 3.88 | 7.76 | 2.16 | 1.25 | 3.12 | 3.31 | 4.40 | 14.49 |
| Thiamin, mg/kg | 24 | 8.25 | 7.50 | 5.00 | 10.5 | 0.91 | 2.17 | 3.12 | 6.25 | 35.0 |
| Riboflavin, mg/kg | 36 | 12.5 | 10.6 | 2.65 | 6.01 | 5.51 | 8.27 | 8.81 | 9.92 | 30.1 |
| Niacin, mg/kg | 36 | 50.7 | 51.6 | 1.72 | 13.2 | 24.8 | 44.9 | 49.6 | 52.5 | 101.9 |
| Pantothenic acid, mg/kg | 36 | 36.6 | 34.1 | 2.84 | 11.4 | 22.0 | 27.5 | 29.4 | 36.2 | 83.0 |
| Pyridoxine, mg/kg | 28 | 7.38 | 5.75 | 0.82 | 5.27 | 0.20 | 2.73 | 4.37 | 6.69 | 20.0 |
| B12, μg/kg | 36 | 40.8 | 38.9 | 1.94 | 7.70 | 27.4 | 33.1 | 36.9 | 44.1 | 55.1 |
| Biotin, mg/kg | 28 | 0.31 | 0.22 | 2.72 | 0.12 | 0.04 | 0.11 | 0.22 | 0.27 | 0.65 |
| Folic acid, mg/kg | 28 | 5.32 | 3.80 | 12.7 | 6.01 | 0.44 | 1.04 | 1.32 | 2.21 | 20.6 |
| Choline, mg/kg | 27 | 372.3 | 336.0 | 0.56 | 217.5 | 96.0 | 178.6 | 224.0 | 457.5 | 919.6 |
| C,3 mg/kg | 1 | 209.5 | 209.5 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Carnitine,3 mg/kg | 1 | 9.92 | 9.92 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Trace minerals | ||||||||||
| Copper, mg/kg | 36 | 99.6 | 96.5 | 16.1 | 80.6 | 11.6 | 16.5 | 98.5 | 162.7 | 247.6 |
| Manganese, mg/kg | 36 | 38.1 | 38.5 | 9.63 | 8.15 | 20.0 | 33.1 | 36.8 | 45.0 | 55.0 |
| Selenium, mg/kg | 36 | 0.30 | 0.30 | 1.00 | 0.01 | 0.27 | 0.30 | 0.30 | 0.30 | 0.30 |
| Zinc, mg/kg | 36 | 2,873 | 2,798 | 27.9 | 792.4 | 110.1 | 2,884 | 2,993 | 3,080 | 4,080 |
| Iodine, mg/kg | 36 | 0.59 | 0.55 | 3.92 | 0.27 | 0.23 | 0.32 | 0.50 | 0.70 | 1.35 |
| Iron, mg/kg | 36 | 96.9 | 113.1 | 1.13 | 22.9 | 45.0 | 100.0 | 110.1 | 121.2 | 165.7 |
| Chromium,3 mg/kg | 13 | 0.20 | 0.18 | – | 0.05 | 0.04 | 0.20 | 0.20 | 0.20 | 0.21 |
| Cobalt,3 mg/kg | 1 | 0.39 | 0.39 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
1Respondents who added the nutrient to the diet from the 4,245,700 sows surveyed. Reported values are on a complete-feed basis.
2Sum of the products of the inclusion level multiplied by the size of the production (# of sows), divided by the total number of sows from the participants that provided added levels for that nutrient.
3 NRC (2012) does not provide a recommendation level of the nutrient.
Table 2.
Percentage of participants using alternative vitamin and trace mineral sources
| Nursery | Finishing | Breeding herd | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Item | Wean to 7 kg | 7 to 11 kg | 11 to 23 kg | 23 to 55 kg | 55 to 100 kg | 100 kg to market | Gilt development | Gestation | Lactation | Boar |
| Participants | 36 | 36 | 36 | 37 | 37 | 37 | 32 | 36 | 36 | 21 |
| Vitamins | ||||||||||
| D [25(OH)D3] | 31% | 28% | 14% | 8% | 8% | 8% | 41% | 36% | 36% | 38% |
| E (natural, d-α-tocopherol) | 6% | 8% | 11% | 11% | 11% | 11% | 25% | 22% | 22% | 24% |
| Trace minerals1 | ||||||||||
| Copper | 43% | 40% | 37% | 25% | 22% | 19% | 47% | 39% | 39% | 56% |
| Manganese | 31% | 31% | 11% | 6% | 6% | 6% | 34% | 36% | 36% | 61% |
| Selenium | 50% | 43% | 29% | 8% | 8% | 8% | 66% | 61% | 61% | 89% |
| Zinc | 26% | 23% | 11% | 8% | 8% | 8% | 34% | 33% | 33% | 50% |
1Percentage of respondents and nutrition suppliers that supplement partial or complete trace mineral concentrations from organic or chelated sources.
In phase 2 (7 to 11 kg) nursery diets (Table 3), the average fat and water-soluble vitamin supplementation rate ranged from 3.2 to 11.2 and 0.6 to 5.8 times their requirement estimates, respectively. Similar to phase 1, vitamin D and folic acid were the highest (11.2 and 5.8, respectively) compared to the NRC (2012). Ten of the thirty six respondents were supplying vitamin D through 25-Hydroxyvitamin D3 or as a percentage of the vitamin D supplied. For vitamin E, 3 of the 36 respondents specified natural vitamin E as the source or as a percentage of the supplied vitamin E in the diet. Trace minerals supplementation ranged between 1.0 and 21.6 times their requirement estimates. Like phase 1, pharmacological levels of zinc and copper were added at 21.6 and 15.1 times the NRC (2012), respectively. Respondents reported using some sort of organic or chelated mineral source for Cu (11), Mn (11), Se (15), and Zn (8).
Table 3.
Added vitamin and trace mineral concentrations in phase 2 nursery diets (7 to 11 kg)
| Count, N1 | Weighted average2 | Average | Ratio to NRC | Standard deviation | Low | 25% | Median | 75% | High | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vitamins | ||||||||||
| A, IU/kg | 36 | 10,305 | 8,625 | 3.92 | 3,234 | 3,036 | 5,305 | 9,369 | 11,025 | 15,400 |
| D, IU/kg | 36 | 2,273 | 2,460 | 11.2 | 1,664 | 551.2 | 1,653 | 1,955 | 2,905 | 10,494 |
| E, IU/kg | 36 | 85.8 | 70.6 | 4.41 | 34.3 | 11.0 | 44.1 | 66.1 | 90.9 | 158.9 |
| K, mg/kg | 36 | 3.55 | 3.75 | 7.50 | 2.15 | 0.65 | 2.98 | 3.31 | 4.34 | 14.5 |
| Thiamin, mg/kg | 23 | 3.76 | 3.94 | 3.94 | 2.24 | 0.91 | 2.13 | 3.24 | 5.86 | 9.92 |
| Riboflavin, mg/kg | 36 | 8.65 | 8.20 | 2.34 | 1.69 | 3.31 | 7.38 | 8.27 | 8.87 | 12.0 |
| Niacin, mg/kg | 36 | 47.5 | 49.0 | 1.63 | 11.9 | 16.5 | 42.2 | 49.6 | 50.6 | 82.7 |
| Pantothenic acid, mg/kg | 36 | 34.2 | 31.7 | 3.17 | 10.4 | 10.7 | 27.2 | 27.6 | 34.7 | 79.3 |
| Pyridoxine, mg/kg | 25 | 5.55 | 4.55 | 0.65 | 2.17 | 0.88 | 2.76 | 4.32 | 6.95 | 8.31 |
| B12, μg/kg | 36 | 38.1 | 36.4 | 2.08 | 7.80 | 16.5 | 33.1 | 33.1 | 39.8 | 55.1 |
| Biotin, mg/kg | 25 | 0.32 | 0.22 | 4.44 | 0.12 | 0.06 | 0.11 | 0.22 | 0.28 | 0.65 |
| Folic acid, mg/kg | 25 | 2.11 | 1.75 | 5.83 | 1.59 | 0.33 | 1.00 | 1.32 | 1.76 | 8.27 |
| Choline, mg/kg | 22 | 329.4 | 283.3 | 0.57 | 207.0 | 41.3 | 138.1 | 224.0 | 364.0 | 919.6 |
| C,3 mg/kg | 1 | 209.5 | 209.5 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Trace minerals | ||||||||||
| Copper, mg/kg | 36 | 94.7 | 90.5 | 15.1 | 78.9 | 6.10 | 16.5 | 61.9 | 160.5 | 247.6 |
| Manganese, mg/kg | 36 | 36.3 | 37.0 | 9.26 | 8.92 | 15.3 | 32.3 | 34.4 | 44.1 | 55.00 |
| Selenium, mg/kg | 36 | 0.30 | 0.30 | 0.99 | 0.01 | 0.25 | 0.30 | 0.30 | 0.30 | 0.30 |
| Zinc, mg/kg | 36 | 1,885 | 2,165 | 21.6 | 998.3 | 108.0 | 1,995 | 2,482 | 2,990 | 3,110 |
| Iodine, mg/kg | 36 | 0.56 | 0.52 | 3.75 | 0.25 | 0.23 | 0.30 | 0.49 | 0.70 | 1.23 |
| Iron, mg/kg | 36 | 94.4 | 111.5 | 1.11 | 22.4 | 45.0 | 100.0 | 110.0 | 120.0 | 165.3 |
| Chromium,3 mg/kg | 11 | 0.19 | 0.18 | – | 0.05 | 0.05 | 0.20 | 0.20 | 0.20 | 0.20 |
| Cobalt,3 mg/kg | 1 | 0.39 | 0.39 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
1Respondents who added the nutrient to the diet from the 4,245,700 sows surveyed. Reported values are on a complete-feed basis.
2Sum of the products of the inclusion level multiplied by the size of the production (# of sows), divided by the total number of sows from the participants that provided added levels for that nutrient.
3 NRC (2012) does not provide a recommendation level of the nutrient.
In phase 3 (11 to 23 kg) nursery diets (Table 4), the average fat and water-soluble vitamin supplementation rate ranged from 3.4 to 8.4 and 0.7 to 4.3 times their requirement estimates, respectively. Vitamin D and biotin were the highest supplementation levels compared to the NRC (2012), being 8.4 and 4.3 times greater, respectively, even though only 36% of the respondents reported the inclusion of biotin in the phase 3 nursery diets. Five of the 36 respondents were supplying vitamin D through 25-Hydroxyvitamin D3 or as a percentage of the supplied vitamin D and four respondents specified using natural vitamin E as source or as a percentage of the supplied vitamin E in the diet. Trace minerals were supplemented from 1.0 to 21.5 times their requirement estimates. Copper was used at the highest concentration above the NRC (2012) due to pharmacological purpose. Less respondents reported using some sort of organic or chelated mineral source for Cu (9), Mn (4), Se (10), and Zn (4) compared to previous phases.
Table 4.
Added vitamin and trace mineral concentrations in phase 3 nursery diets (11 to 23 kg)
| Count, N1 | Weighted average2 | Average | Ratio to NRC | Standard deviation | Low | 25% | Median | 75% | High | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vitamins | ||||||||||
| A, IU/kg | 36 | 6,903 | 5,951 | 3.40 | 2,645 | 1,951 | 3,722 | 5,457 | 7,788 | 12,472 |
| D, IU/kg | 36 | 1,608 | 1,681 | 8.41 | 644.3 | 882.0 | 1,102 | 1,653 | 1,984 | 4,160 |
| E, IU/kg | 36 | 57.6 | 44.1 | 4.01 | 25.9 | 11.0 | 30.0 | 44.1 | 48.1 | 125.0 |
| K, mg/kg | 36 | 3.07 | 3.14 | 6.29 | 1.42 | 0.53 | 2.56 | 3.25 | 3.53 | 8.69 |
| Thiamin, mg/kg | 11 | 2.87 | 2.75 | 2.75 | 1.63 | 0.45 | 2.07 | 2.21 | 3.21 | 5.79 |
| Riboflavin, mg/kg | 36 | 6.78 | 6.62 | 2.21 | 1.89 | 3.30 | 4.9 | 6.81 | 8.27 | 10.8 |
| Niacin, mg/kg | 36 | 36.4 | 40.2 | 1.34 | 10.7 | 16.5 | 30.0 | 42.9 | 49.6 | 66.1 |
| Pantothenic acid, mg/kg | 36 | 24.8 | 23.6 | 2.62 | 7.03 | 10.6 | 17.9 | 24.4 | 27.5 | 37.4 |
| Pyridoxine, mg/kg | 12 | 4.82 | 3.42 | 1.14 | 2.24 | 0.88 | 1.28 | 3.06 | 5.00 | 7.00 |
| B12, μg/kg | 36 | 29.6 | 29.6 | 1.97 | 9.10 | 15.6 | 22.3 | 30.4 | 33.1 | 50.2 |
| Biotin, mg/kg | 13 | 0.40 | 0.22 | 4.33 | 0.15 | 0.09 | 0.11 | 0.20 | 0.22 | 0.65 |
| Folic acid, mg/kg | 14 | 2.53 | 1.22 | 4.07 | 1.23 | 0.04 | 0.34 | 0.75 | 1.60 | 4.49 |
| Choline, mg/kg | 5 | 240.5 | 286.7 | 0.72 | 170.4 | 48.0 | 220.5 | 225.0 | 390.0 | 550.0 |
| Trace minerals | ||||||||||
| Copper, mg/kg | 36 | 95.9 | 107.5 | 21.5 | 86.9 | 6.10 | 16.2 | 125.0 | 165.2 | 268.5 |
| Manganese, mg/kg | 36 | 30.7 | 31.4 | 10.5 | 7.03 | 11.6 | 29.7 | 30.0 | 33.1 | 55.0 |
| Selenium, mg/kg | 36 | 0.30 | 0.30 | 1.19 | 0.01 | 0.27 | 0.30 | 0.30 | 0.30 | 0.30 |
| Zinc, mg/kg | 36 | 290.3 | 316.6 | 3.96 | 445.5 | 75.0 | 100.0 | 110.2 | 158.2 | 1,910 |
| Iodine, mg/kg | 36 | 0.44 | 0.44 | 3.12 | 0.23 | 0.21 | 0.30 | 0.33 | 0.51 | 1.17 |
| Iron, mg/kg | 36 | 84.5 | 103.2 | 1.03 | 34.9 | 45.0 | 79.0 | 100.0 | 110.2 | 238.7 |
| Chromium,3 mg/kg | 4 | 0.20 | 0.17 | – | 0.05 | 0.08 | 0.17 | 0.20 | 0.20 | 0.20 |
| Cobalt,3 mg/kg | 1 | 0.39 | 0.39 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
1Respondents who added the nutrient to the diet from the 4,245,700 sows surveyed. Reported values are on a complete-feed basis.
2Sum of the products of the inclusion level multiplied by the size of the production (# of sows), divided by the total number of sows from the participants that provided added levels for that nutrient
3 NRC (2012) does not provide a recommendation level of the nutrient.
Finisher
Early-finishing (23 to 55 kg) diets (Table 5) supplementation rates were provided by 29 production systems and 8 nutrition supplier companies. The average fat and water-soluble vitamin supplementation rate ranged from 2.7 to 8.1 and 0.9 to 3.2 times their requirement estimates, respectively. Vitamin D and thiamin had the greatest supplementation levels compared to the NRC (2012), at 8.1 and 3.2 times, respectively. Only three respondents reported added thiamin to this phase. Trace minerals were supplemented at rates of 1.5 to 2.7 times the requirement estimate for iodine, iron, selenium, and zinc. Copper and manganese were supplemented at 18.7 and 14.0 times their NRC (2012) requirement estimates, respectively.
Table 5.
Added vitamin and trace mineral concentrations in early-finishing diets (23 to 55 kg)
| Count, N1 | Weighted average2 | Average | Ratio to NRC | Standard deviation | Low | 25% | Median | 75% | High | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vitamins | ||||||||||
| A, IU/kg | 37 | 4,280 | 3,981 | 3.06 | 1,536 | 1,951 | 2,517 | 3,528 | 5,292 | 7,055 |
| D, IU/kg | 37 | 1,167 | 1,208 | 8.06 | 462.5 | 487.8 | 992.3 | 1,087 | 1,322 | 2,695 |
| E, IU/kg | 37 | 35.5 | 29.4 | 2.68 | 11.8 | 11.0 | 24.2 | 26.5 | 33.1 | 67.5 |
| K, mg/kg | 37 | 1.97 | 2.17 | 4.35 | 1.34 | 0.51 | 1.52 | 1.98 | 2.57 | 8.69 |
| Riboflavin, mg/kg | 37 | 5.03 | 4.92 | 1.97 | 0.98 | 3.30 | 4.50 | 4.96 | 5.44 | 7.20 |
| Niacin, mg/kg | 37 | 30.1 | 31.2 | 1.04 | 7.08 | 16.5 | 27.5 | 29.9 | 33.1 | 49.6 |
| Pantothenic acid, mg/kg | 37 | 18.9 | 16.9 | 2.11 | 3.60 | 10.6 | 15.1 | 16.5 | 18.9 | 24.9 |
| B12, μg/kg | 37 | 22.8 | 21.7 | 2.17 | 4.20 | 15.4 | 19.8 | 21.6 | 23.1 | 33.1 |
| Biotin, mg/kg | 1 | 0.10 | 0.10 | 2.00 | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Thiamin, mg/kg | 3 | 1.30 | 3.21 | 3.21 | 1.65 | 1.00 | 2.34 | 3.68 | 4.32 | 4.96 |
| Folic acid, mg/kg | 2 | 0.46 | 0.26 | 0.86 | 0.24 | 0.02 | 0.14 | 0.26 | 0.38 | 0.50 |
| Pyridoxine, mg/kg | 2 | 1.99 | 1.95 | 1.95 | 0.05 | 1.90 | 1.92 | 1.95 | 1.97 | 2.00 |
| Trace minerals | ||||||||||
| Copper, mg/kg | 37 | 76.9 | 75.0 | 18.7 | 67.2 | 5.00 | 14.9 | 16.5 | 142.5 | 200.0 |
| Manganese, mg/kg | 37 | 26.0 | 28.1 | 14.0 | 6.70 | 9.92 | 25.0 | 30.0 | 31.4 | 40.1 |
| Selenium, mg/kg | 37 | 0.30 | 0.29 | 1.45 | 0.03 | 0.11 | 0.30 | 0.30 | 0.30 | 0.30 |
| Zinc, mg/kg | 37 | 106.4 | 102.2 | 1.70 | 19.1 | 39.9 | 100.0 | 102.9 | 110.1 | 150.0 |
| Iodine, mg/kg | 37 | 0.46 | 0.37 | 2.67 | 0.20 | 0.11 | 0.27 | 0.30 | 0.40 | 1.02 |
| Iron, mg/kg | 37 | 78.9 | 90.1 | 1.50 | 21.6 | 39.9 | 75.0 | 100.0 | 108.4 | 134.4 |
| Cobalt,3 mg/kg | 1 | 0.39 | 0.39 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
1Respondents who added the nutrient to the diet from the 4,382,700 sows surveyed. Reported values are on a complete-feed basis.
2Sum of the products of the inclusion level multiplied by the size of the production (# of sows), divided by the total number of sows from the participants that provided added levels for that nutrient.
3 NRC (2012) does not provide a recommendation level of the nutrient.
In midfinishing (55 to 100 kg) diets (Table 6), the average fat and water-soluble vitamin supplementation rate ranged from 2.3 to 7.0 and 0.9 to 3.7 times their requirement estimates, respectively. Vitamin D and vitamin B12 were the highest compared to the NRC (2012), being 7.0 and 3.7 times greater, respectively. Trace minerals were supplemented at rates of 1.7 to 2.4 times the requirement estimate for iodine, iron, selenium, and zinc. Copper and manganese were 14.3 and 12.4 times their requirement estimates, respectively.
Table 6.
Added vitamin and trace mineral concentrations in midfinishing diets (55 to 100 kg)
| Count, N1 | Weighted average2 | Average | Ratio to NRC | Standard deviation | Low | 25% | Median | 75% | High | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vitamins | ||||||||||
| A, IU/kg | 37 | 3,870 | 3,394 | 2.61 | 1,399 | 1,500 | 2,304 | 2,998 | 4,116 | 6,615 |
| D, IU/kg | 37 | 1,061 | 1,045 | 6.97 | 448.6 | 487.7 | 826.9 | 992.3 | 1,085 | 2,737 |
| E, IU/kg | 37 | 33.3 | 25.7 | 2.34 | 11.7 | 5.51 | 19.8 | 23.0 | 30.8 | 59.8 |
| K, mg/kg | 37 | 1.79 | 1.89 | 3.79 | 1.34 | 0.51 | 1.20 | 1.65 | 2.06 | 8.69 |
| Riboflavin, mg/kg | 37 | 4.60 | 4.22 | 2.11 | 0.99 | 1.65 | 3.53 | 4.13 | 4.95 | 6.39 |
| Niacin, mg/kg | 37 | 27.7 | 26.9 | 0.90 | 6.61 | 8.27 | 22.4 | 26.9 | 30.0 | 44.1 |
| Pantothenic acid, mg/kg | 37 | 16.6 | 14.4 | 2.06 | 3.67 | 5.37 | 12.4 | 13.8 | 17.6 | 24.9 |
| B12, μg/kg | 37 | 20.9 | 18.6 | 3.73 | 4.55 | 8.27 | 15.6 | 18.2 | 21.4 | 29.9 |
| Biotin, mg/kg | 1 | 0.10 | 0.10 | 2.00 | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Thiamin, mg/kg | 3 | 1.20 | 2.49 | 2.49 | 1.13 | 1.00 | 1.88 | 2.76 | 3.24 | 3.72 |
| Folic acid, mg/kg | 2 | 0.46 | 0.26 | 0.86 | 0.24 | 0.02 | 0.14 | 0.26 | 0.38 | 0.50 |
| Pyridoxine, mg/kg | 2 | 1.98 | 1.84 | 1.84 | 0.16 | 1.68 | 1.76 | 1.84 | 1.92 | 2.00 |
| Trace minerals | ||||||||||
| Copper, mg/kg | 37 | 50.5 | 46.5 | 14.3 | 58.9 | 3.05 | 11.0 | 13.3 | 65.0 | 172.0 |
| Manganese, mg/kg | 37 | 24.0 | 24.8 | 12.4 | 7.19 | 7.44 | 22.0 | 25.3 | 29.6 | 40.1 |
| Selenium, mg/kg | 37 | 0.27 | 0.26 | 1.71 | 0.05 | 0.07 | 0.22 | 0.27 | 0.30 | 0.30 |
| Zinc, mg/kg | 37 | 98.1 | 89.1 | 1.78 | 20.2 | 26.6 | 82.6 | 90.0 | 100.0 | 131.2 |
| Iodine, mg/kg | 37 | 0.43 | 0.33 | 2.36 | 0.21 | 0.07 | 0.21 | 0.25 | 0.37 | 1.02 |
| Iron, mg/kg | 37 | 71.7 | 77.7 | 1.73 | 19.2 | 26.6 | 66.6 | 80.0 | 91.8 | 110.1 |
| Cobalt,3 mg/kg | 1 | 0.36 | 0.36 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
1Respondents who added the nutrient to the diet from the 4,382,700 sows surveyed. Reported values are on a complete-feed basis.
2Sum of the products of the inclusion level multiplied by the size of the production (# of sows), divided by the total number of sows from the participants that provided added levels for that nutrient.
3 NRC (2012) does not provide a recommendation level of the nutrient.
In late finishing (100 kg to market) diets (Table 7), the average fat and water-soluble vitamin supplementation rate ranged from 2.0 to 6.0 and 0.8 to 3.2 times their requirement estimates, respectively. Niacin was supplemented under the requirement estimate at 0.8 times the NRC (2012). Vitamin D and vitamin B12 were the highest supplementation levels compared to the NRC (2012), at 6.0 and 3.2 times, respectively. Trace minerals were supplemented at rates of 1.4 to 2.0 times the requirement estimate for iodine, iron, selenium, and zinc. Copper and manganese were 12.2 and 10.2 times their requirement estimates, respectively.
Table 7.
Added vitamin and trace mineral concentrations in late-finishing diets (100 kg to market)
| Count, N1 | Weighted average2 | Average | Ratio to NRC | Standard deviation | Low | 25% | Median | 75% | High | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vitamins | ||||||||||
| A, IU/kg | 37 | 3,378 | 2,874 | 2.21 | 1,314 | 1,125 | 1,874 | 2,480 | 3,528 | 6,615 |
| D, IU/kg | 37 | 932.1 | 893.6 | 5.96 | 442.9 | 344.5 | 661.5 | 805.6 | 997.9 | 2,778 |
| E, IU/kg | 37 | 29.9 | 21.8 | 1.98 | 11.22 | 5.51 | 14.5 | 19.5 | 25.8 | 59.8 |
| K, mg/kg | 37 | 1.60 | 1.65 | 3.30 | 1.37 | 0.38 | 0.99 | 1.32 | 1.98 | 8.69 |
| Riboflavin, mg/kg | 37 | 4.06 | 3.58 | 1.79 | 1.10 | 1.65 | 2.65 | 3.31 | 4.20 | 6.17 |
| Niacin, mg/kg | 37 | 24.6 | 22.8 | 0.76 | 6.99 | 8.27 | 19.8 | 22.5 | 27.0 | 44.1 |
| Pantothenic acid, mg/kg | 37 | 14.7 | 12.1 | 1.73 | 3.75 | 5.37 | 9.10 | 11.0 | 14.2 | 24.9 |
| B12, μg/kg | 37 | 18.6 | 15.8 | 3.17 | 5.09 | 8.27 | 12.5 | 13.7 | 19.8 | 29.9 |
| Biotin, mg/kg | 1 | 0.10 | 0.10 | 2.00 | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Thiamin, mg/kg | 3 | 1.15 | 2.17 | 2.17 | 0.94 | 1.00 | 1.60 | 2.21 | 2.76 | 3.31 |
| Folic acid, mg/kg | 2 | 0.46 | 0.26 | 0.86 | 0.24 | 0.02 | 0.14 | 0.26 | 0.38 | 0.50 |
| Pyridoxine, mg/kg | 2 | 1.97 | 1.75 | 1.75 | 0.25 | 1.50 | 1.62 | 1.75 | 1.87 | 2.00 |
| Trace minerals | ||||||||||
| Copper, mg/kg | 37 | 45.3 | 36.7 | 12.2 | 54.5 | 3.05 | 8.25 | 9.01 | 15.0 | 172.0 |
| Manganese, mg/kg | 37 | 20.8 | 20.5 | 10.2 | 7.22 | 6.00 | 16.5 | 18.7 | 25.0 | 40.0 |
| Selenium, mg/kg | 37 | 0.24 | 0.21 | 1.43 | 0.06 | 0.05 | 0.15 | 0.23 | 0.27 | 0.30 |
| Zinc, mg/kg | 37 | 85.3 | 73.9 | 1.48 | 21.1 | 19.9 | 57.9 | 75.0 | 88.9 | 120.2 |
| Iodine, mg/kg | 37 | 0.39 | 0.28 | 2.02 | 0.20 | 0.05 | 0.17 | 0.20 | 0.34 | 1.00 |
| Iron, mg/kg | 37 | 61.3 | 64.5 | 1.61 | 17.5 | 19.9 | 55.0 | 63.0 | 77.1 | 100.0 |
| Cobalt,3 mg/kg | 1 | 0.31 | 0.31 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
1Respondents who added the nutrient to the diet from the 4,382,700 sows surveyed. Reported values are on a complete-feed basis.
2Sum of the products of the inclusion level multiplied by the size of the production (# of sows), divided by the total number of sows from the participants that provided added levels for that nutrient.
3 NRC (2012) does not provide a recommendation level of the nutrient.
Breeding Herd Diets
Diets used for gilt development (Table 8) varied greatly. Each respondent has its own strategy, not a specific premix, but a combination of the phase 3 nursery or finishing premixes with sow’s vitamin and trace mineral premixes to provide vitamins and trace minerals to prebreeding gilts. The average fat and water-soluble vitamin supplementation rate ranged from 1.9 to 7.1 and 0.4 to 4.2 times NRC (2012) requirement estimates, respectively. Vitamin K and niacin were the highest supplementation levels compared to the NRC (2012), at 7.1 and 4.2 times, respectively. Thirteen of the thirty two respondents were supplying vitamin D through 25-Hydroxyvitamin D3 as the only source or as a percentage of the vitamin D supplied and eight respondents specified natural vitamin E as the source or as a percentage of the supplied vitamin E in the diet (Table 2). Choline was supplemented below NRC, at 0.4 times. Trace minerals supplementation ranged between 1.2 and 4.3 times their requirement estimates. Some respondents reported using some sort of organic or chelated mineral source for Cu (12), Mn (11), Se (22), and Zn (11).
Table 8.
Added vitamin and trace mineral concentrations in gilt development diets
| Count, N1 | Weighted average2 | Average | Ratio to NRC3 | Standard deviation | Low | 25% | Median | 75% | High | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vitamins | ||||||||||
| A, IU/kg | 32 | 9,481 | 8,497 | 2.12 | 2,243 | 2,066 | 7,206 | 8,352 | 9,922 | 12,472 |
| D, IU/kg | 32 | 2,102 | 2,191 | 2.74 | 965.1 | 688.9 | 1,653 | 1,984 | 2,429 | 4,499 |
| E, IU/kg | 32 | 88.7 | 73.3 | 1.92 | 26.9 | 22.0 | 52.7 | 67.5 | 88.0 | 132.3 |
| K, mg/kg | 32 | 3.54 | 3.53 | 7.05 | 1.75 | 1.47 | 2.20 | 3.30 | 4.41 | 11.0 |
| Thiamin, mg/kg | 24 | 2.30 | 2.31 | 2.31 | 1.11 | 0.40 | 1.76 | 2.20 | 2.69 | 5.10 |
| Riboflavin, mg/kg | 32 | 8.27 | 7.72 | 2.06 | 1.88 | 3.86 | 5.93 | 7.94 | 9.92 | 10.8 |
| Niacin, mg/kg | 32 | 41.6 | 41.5 | 4.15 | 9.60 | 27.5 | 34.5 | 41.9 | 44.9 | 78.8 |
| Pantothenic acid, mg/kg | 32 | 28.9 | 26.5 | 2.21 | 6.65 | 13.9 | 21.0 | 26.4 | 33.0 | 38.8 |
| Pyridoxine, mg/kg | 30 | 3.68 | 2.80 | 2.80 | 1.38 | 0.45 | 1.66 | 3.03 | 3.56 | 5.99 |
| B12, μg/kg | 32 | 34.7 | 32.7 | 2.18 | 7.16 | 16.5 | 27.6 | 33.1 | 37.7 | 46.3 |
| Biotin, mg/kg | 30 | 0.35 | 0.26 | 1.30 | 0.12 | 0.07 | 0.20 | 0.23 | 0.33 | 0.65 |
| Folic acid, mg/kg | 30 | 2.39 | 1.91 | 1.47 | 1.48 | 0.55 | 1.16 | 1.39 | 1.98 | 8.27 |
| Choline, mg/kg | 27 | 431.6 | 446.9 | 0.36 | 258.8 | 100.0 | 267.8 | 420.0 | 550.0 | 1,471 |
| C,4 mg/kg | 1 | 209.5 | 209.5 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Trace minerals | ||||||||||
| Copper, mg/kg | 32 | 39.2 | 42.6 | 4.26 | 47.8 | 11.6 | 15.0 | 16.0 | 58.1 | 162.0 |
| Manganese, mg/kg | 32 | 38.4 | 38.3 | 1.53 | 11.0 | 8.27 | 30.0 | 40.0 | 50.0 | 51.2 |
| Selenium, mg/kg | 32 | 0.28 | 0.28 | 1.88 | 0.03 | 0.20 | 0.25 | 0.30 | 0.30 | 0.30 |
| Zinc, mg/kg | 32 | 125.9 | 125.5 | 1.25 | 45.0 | 60.0 | 107.2 | 122.0 | 125.0 | 325.0 |
| Iodine, mg/kg | 32 | 0.48 | 0.48 | 3.45 | 0.24 | 0.21 | 0.34 | 0.42 | 0.56 | 1.20 |
| Iron, mg/kg | 32 | 85.4 | 99.1 | 1.24 | 21.1 | 45.0 | 89.1 | 100.0 | 110.0 | 149.8 |
| Chromium,4 mg/kg | 19 | 0.17 | 0.15 | – | 0.05 | 0.07 | 0.10 | 0.20 | 0.20 | 0.20 |
| Cobalt,4 mg/kg | 1 | 0.39 | 0.39 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
1Respondents who added the nutrient to the diet from the 4,182,600 sows surveyed. Reported values are on a complete-feed basis.
2Sum of the products of the inclusion level multiplied by the size of the production (# of sows), divided by the total number of sows from the participants that provided added levels for that nutrient
3 NRC (2012) Gestation recommendation.
4 NRC (2012) does not provide a recommendation level of the nutrient.
In gestation diets (Table 9), the average fat and water-soluble vitamin supplementation rate ranged from 1.9 to 7.9 and 0.5 to 4.5 times the NRC (2012) requirement estimates, respectively. Vitamin K and niacin were the highest supplementation levels at 7.9 and 4.5 times, respectively, compared to the NRC (2012). Thirteen of the thirty two respondents were supplying vitamin D through 25-Hydroxyvitamin D3 as source or as a percentage of the vitamin D supplied and eight respondents specified natural vitamin E as source or as a percentage of the supplied vitamin E in the diet. Choline was supplemented below NRC at 0.5 times. Trace minerals supplementation ranged between 1.3 and 3.7 times their requirement estimates. Some respondents reported using some sort of organic or chelated mineral source for Cu (13), Mn (13), Se (23), and Zn (12).
Table 9.
Added vitamin and trace mineral concentrations in gestation diets
| Count, N1 | Weighted average2 | Average | Ratio to NRC | Standard deviation | Low | 25% | Median | 75% | High | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vitamins | ||||||||||
| A, IU/kg | 36 | 10,511 | 9,646 | 2.41 | 1,549 | 5,511 | 8,821 | 9,920 | 10,856 | 12,472 |
| D, IU/kg | 36 | 2,276 | 2,367 | 2.96 | 805.9 | 1,500 | 1,733 | 2,204 | 2,537 | 4,499 |
| E, IU/kg | 35 | 95.5 | 84.4 | 1.92 | 22.9 | 44.1 | 66.1 | 79.4 | 94.5 | 132.3 |
| K, mg/kg | 36 | 3.87 | 3.96 | 7.92 | 2.10 | 1.41 | 3.00 | 3.75 | 4.42 | 14.5 |
| Thiamin, mg/kg | 28 | 2.57 | 2.74 | 2.74 | 1.94 | 0.25 | 2.04 | 2.21 | 3.00 | 9.92 |
| Riboflavin, mg/kg | 36 | 9.01 | 8.58 | 2.29 | 1.26 | 5.51 | 7.88 | 8.27 | 9.92 | 10.8 |
| Niacin, mg/kg | 36 | 44.9 | 45.3 | 4.53 | 9.34 | 22.0 | 39.9 | 44.1 | 49.6 | 82.7 |
| Pantothenic acid, mg/kg | 36 | 31.8 | 29.8 | 2.49 | 5.47 | 20.0 | 26.4 | 28.1 | 33.0 | 45.2 |
| Pyridoxine, mg/kg | 36 | 4.08 | 3.11 | 3.11 | 1.65 | 0.25 | 1.98 | 3.31 | 4.00 | 8.17 |
| B12, μg/kg | 36 | 37.9 | 36.5 | 2.44 | 5.70 | 20.0 | 33.1 | 37.4 | 39.7 | 55.1 |
| Biotin, mg/kg | 36 | 0.37 | 0.29 | 1.43 | 0.10 | 0.09 | 0.22 | 0.25 | 0.33 | 0.65 |
| Folic acid, mg/kg | 35 | 2.65 | 2.11 | 1.62 | 1.32 | 0.88 | 1.32 | 1.74 | 2.21 | 8.27 |
| Choline, mg/kg | 33 | 533.3 | 576.3 | 0.46 | 115.3 | 300.0 | 515.0 | 584.3 | 661.2 | 778.4 |
| C,3 mg/kg | 1 | 209.5 | 209.5 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Trace minerals | ||||||||||
| Copper, mg/kg | 36 | 16.6 | 17.6 | 1.76 | 2.83 | 11.6 | 15.0 | 16.5 | 20.0 | 25.0 |
| Manganese, mg/kg | 36 | 42.3 | 43.4 | 1.74 | 9.57 | 20.0 | 35.3 | 50.0 | 50.0 | 60.0 |
| Selenium, mg/kg | 36 | 0.30 | 0.30 | 2.00 | 0.01 | 0.27 | 0.30 | 0.30 | 0.30 | 0.30 |
| Zinc, mg/kg | 36 | 125.0 | 127.8 | 1.28 | 34.9 | 60.0 | 111.9 | 125.0 | 125.2 | 302.0 |
| Iodine, mg/kg | 36 | 0.53 | 0.52 | 3.73 | 0.26 | 0.23 | 0.35 | 0.50 | 0.63 | 1.26 |
| Iron, mg/kg | 36 | 94.4 | 109.7 | 1.37 | 20.5 | 45.0 | 100.0 | 105.0 | 118.5 | 165.0 |
| Chromium,3 mg/kg | 21 | 0.20 | 0.19 | – | 0.03 | 0.08 | 0.20 | 0.20 | 0.20 | 0.20 |
| Cobalt,3 mg/kg | 1 | 0.39 | 0.39 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Carnitine,3 mg/kg | 1 | 19.8 | 19.8 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
1Respondents who added the nutrient to the diet from the 4,370,100 sows surveyed. Reported values are on a complete-feed basis.
2Sum of the products of the inclusion level multiplied by the size of the production (# of sows), divided by the total number of sows from the participants that provided added levels for that nutrient
3 NRC (2012) does not provide a recommendation level of the nutrient.
Lactation diets (Table 10) had the same levels, ratios to the NRC (2012), and inclusion of alternative sources as gestation diets for the majority of vitamins and trace minerals. Vitamin A had the same inclusion levels as for gestation, but since the NRC (2012) suggests less Vitamin A for lactation, the ratio to the NRC was 4.8. Choline was supplemented at 0.6 times the NRC (2012). Trace minerals follow the same standard but, due to a high recommendation level by the NRC compared to gestation, copper was supplemented at 0.9 times its requirement estimate.
Table 10.
Added vitamin and trace mineral concentrations in lactation diets
| Count, N1 | Weighted average2 | Average | Ratio to NRC | Standard deviation | Low | 25% | Median | 75% | High | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vitamins | ||||||||||
| A, IU/kg | 36 | 10,511 | 9,646 | 4.82 | 1,549 | 5,511 | 8,821 | 9,920 | 10,856 | 12,472 |
| D, IU/kg | 36 | 2,276 | 2,367 | 2.96 | 805.2 | 1,500 | 1,733 | 2,204 | 2,537 | 4,499 |
| E, IU/kg | 35 | 95.5 | 84.4 | 1.92 | 22.9 | 44.1 | 66.1 | 79.4 | 94.5 | 132.3 |
| K, mg/kg | 36 | 3.87 | 3.96 | 7.91 | 2.10 | 1.42 | 3.00 | 3.75 | 4.42 | 14.5 |
| Thiamin, mg/kg | 28 | 2.57 | 2.74 | 2.74 | 1.94 | 0.25 | 2.04 | 2.21 | 3.00 | 9.98 |
| Riboflavin, mg/kg | 36 | 9.01 | 8.58 | 2.29 | 1.26 | 5.51 | 7.88 | 8.27 | 9.92 | 10.8 |
| Niacin, mg/kg | 36 | 44.9 | 45.3 | 4.53 | 9.34 | 22.0 | 39.9 | 44.1 | 49.6 | 82.7 |
| Pantothenic acid, mg/kg | 36 | 31.8 | 29.8 | 2.49 | 5.47 | 20.0 | 26.4 | 28.1 | 33.1 | 45.2 |
| Pyridoxine, mg/kg | 36 | 4.08 | 3.11 | 3.11 | 1.65 | 0.25 | 1.98 | 3.31 | 4.00 | 8.17 |
| B12, μg/kg | 36 | 37.9 | 36.5 | 2.44 | 5.70 | 20.0 | 33.1 | 37.4 | 39.7 | 55.1 |
| Biotin, mg/kg | 36 | 0.37 | 0.29 | 1.43 | 0.10 | 0.09 | 0.22 | 0.25 | 0.33 | 0.65 |
| Folic acid, mg/kg | 35 | 2.65 | 2.11 | 1.62 | 1.32 | 0.88 | 1.32 | 1.74 | 2.21 | 8.27 |
| Choline, mg/kg | 33 | 523.2 | 566.1 | 0.57 | 115.1 | 300.0 | 500.1 | 550.0 | 641.8 | 778.4 |
| C,3 mg/kg | 1 | 209.5 | 209.5 | – | – | – | – | – | – | – |
| Trace minerals | ||||||||||
| Copper, mg/kg | 36 | 16.7 | 17.6 | 0.88 | 2.83 | 11.6 | 15.0 | 16.5 | 20.0 | 25.0 |
| Manganese, mg/kg | 36 | 42.1 | 43.0 | 1.72 | 9.38 | 20.0 | 35.3 | 49.7 | 50.0 | 60.0 |
| Selenium, mg/kg | 36 | 0.30 | 0.30 | 2.00 | 0.01 | 0.27 | 0.30 | 0.30 | 0.30 | 0.30 |
| Zinc, mg/kg | 36 | 124.0 | 125.3 | 1.25 | 24.0 | 60.0 | 111.9 | 125.0 | 125.2 | 214.0 |
| Iodine, mg/kg | 36 | 0.53 | 0.52 | 3.73 | 0.26 | 0.23 | 0.35 | 0.50 | 0.63 | 1.26 |
| Iron, mg/kg | 36 | 94.5 | 109.7 | 1.37 | 20.5 | 45.0 | 100.0 | 105.0 | 118.5 | 165.0 |
| Chromium,3 mg/kg | 21 | 0.20 | 0.19 | – | 0.03 | 0.08 | 0.20 | 0.20 | 0.20 | 0.20 |
| Cobalt,3 mg/kg | 1 | 0.39 | 0.39 | – | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
| Carnitine,3 mg/kg | 1 | 19.8 | 19.8 | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- | --- |
1Respondents who added the nutrient to the diet from the 4,370,100 sows surveyed. Reported values are on a complete-feed basis.
2Sum of the products of the inclusion level multiplied by the size of the production (# of sows), divided by the total number of sows from the participants that provided added levels for that nutrient.
3 NRC (2012) does not provide a recommendation level of the nutrient.
Boar diets (Table 11) were provided by 21 of the respondents covering approximately 3,236,400 sows or 53% of the U.S. industry. The average fat and water-soluble vitamin supplementation rate ranged from 2.4 to 13.5 and 0.4 to 4.7 times the NRC (2012) requirement estimates, respectively. Vitamin D and niacin were the highest supplementation levels compared to the NRC (2012), at 13.5 and 4.7 times, respectively. Eight of the thirty two respondents were supplying vitamin D through 25-Hydroxyvitamin D3 as source or as a percentage of the vitamin D supplied and five respondents specified natural vitamin E as source or as a percentage of the supplied vitamin E in the diet. Choline was supplemented below NRC at 0.4 times. Trace minerals supplementation ranged between 1.0 and 3.9 times their requirement estimates. Some respondents reported using some sort of organic or chelated mineral source for Cu (9), Mn (11), Se (17), and Zn (9).
Table 11.
Added vitamin and trace mineral concentrations in boar diets
| Count, N1 | Weighted average2 | Average | Ratio to NRC | Standard deviation | Low | 25% | Median | 75% | High | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Vitamins | ||||||||||
| A, IU/kg | 21 | 11,193 | 10,410 | 2.60 | 1,644 | 5,733 | 9,458 | 9,922 | 12,000 | 13,230 |
| D, IU/kg | 21 | 2,398 | 2,710 | 13.5 | 885.9 | 1,653 | 2,077 | 2,365 | 2,873 | 4,499 |
| E, IU/kg | 21 | 118.4 | 104.4 | 2.37 | 34.6 | 44.1 | 77.3 | 103.4 | 126.0 | 173.3 |
| K, mg/kg | 21 | 3.93 | 4.12 | 8.25 | 2.74 | 1.32 | 2.20 | 4.41 | 4.74 | 14.5 |
| Thiamin, mg/kg | 20 | 2.58 | 2.53 | 2.53 | 1.50 | 0.25 | 2.02 | 2.21 | 2.99 | 5.95 |
| Riboflavin, mg/kg | 21 | 9.25 | 8.94 | 2.38 | 1.36 | 7.05 | 7.72 | 8.82 | 9.92 | 12.0 |
| Niacin, mg/kg | 21 | 46.1 | 46.4 | 4.65 | 6.52 | 39.4 | 41.9 | 44.1 | 49.6 | 65.0 |
| Pantothenic acid, mg/kg | 21 | 32.9 | 30.9 | 2.58 | 6.18 | 20.0 | 27.4 | 30.3 | 33.1 | 45.2 |
| Pyridoxine, mg/kg | 21 | 4.78 | 4.05 | 4.05 | 2.00 | 0.21 | 2.76 | 3.97 | 4.41 | 8.85 |
| B12, μg/kg | 21 | 40.5 | 39.6 | 2.64 | 11.2 | 20.0 | 33.7 | 38.6 | 39.7 | 81.0 |
| Biotin, mg/kg | 21 | 0.47 | 0.38 | 1.91 | 0.14 | 0.22 | 0.23 | 0.36 | 0.44 | 0.65 |
| Folic acid, mg/kg | 21 | 3.04 | 2.47 | 1.90 | 1.59 | 1.10 | 1.65 | 1.93 | 2.43 | 8.27 |
| Choline, mg/kg | 16 | 455.7 | 534.0 | 0.43 | 155.8 | 250.0 | 486.7 | 523.5 | 629.3 | 908.5 |
| C,3 mg/kg | 4 | 192.3 | 342.3 | – | 314.3 | 137.8 | 137.8 | 173.6 | 378.2 | 884.3 |
| Trace minerals | ||||||||||
| Copper, mg/kg | 21 | 17.5 | 19.5 | 3.91 | 6.91 | 11.6 | 15.0 | 17.0 | 20.0 | 43.2 |
| Manganese, mg/kg | 21 | 47.9 | 55.1 | 2.76 | 27.9 | 20.0 | 40.0 | 50.0 | 59.4 | 153.6 |
| Selenium, mg/kg | 21 | 0.30 | 0.30 | 1.00 | 0.00 | 0.28 | 0.30 | 0.30 | 0.30 | 0.30 |
| Zinc, mg/kg | 21 | 138.7 | 141.8 | 2.84 | 39.2 | 60.0 | 125.0 | 125.7 | 157.8 | 256.0 |
| Iodine, mg/kg | 21 | 0.59 | 0.64 | 4.57 | 0.25 | 0.30 | 0.50 | 0.50 | 0.70 | 1.20 |
| Iron, mg/kg | 21 | 88.2 | 103.6 | 1.29 | 16.9 | 45.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 | 110.0 | 140.0 |
| Chromium,3 mg/kg | 14 | 0.20 | 0.20 | – | 0.01 | 0.19 | 0.20 | 0.20 | 0.20 | 0.20 |
| Carnitine,3 mg/kg | 2 | 220.0 | 220.0 | – | – | 220.0 | 220.0 | 220.0 | 220.0 | 220.0 |
1Respondents who added the nutrient to the diet from the 3,236,400 sows surveyed. Reported values are on a complete-feed basis.
2Sum of the products of the inclusion level multiplied by the size of the production (# of sows), divided by the total number of sows from the participants that provided added levels for that nutrient.
3 NRC (2012) does not provide a recommendation level of the nutrient.
DISCUSSION
Most respondents reported vitamin and trace mineral levels over the NRC (2012) estimates in all production phases and breeding categories. A few reasons can explain these responses. First, the NRC (2012) based its recommendation on a predetermined average daily feed intake which in many cases is overestimated compared to current pig performance. For example, for 5 to 7 kg-pigs to reach the vitamins daily requirement recommended by NRC (2012), feed intake should be approximately 268 g/day. Considering the first week of nursery feed intake, this amount is about 2 times greater than recent research studies (Williams et al., 2020; Chance et al., 2022). Thus, a greater inclusion rate is required to obtain the daily intake suggested by NRC (2012). Second, most of the studies used to determine vitamin requirements in the NRC (2012) are from more than 3 decades ago, which may not represent current requirements of modern pigs. Thus, nutritionists, genetic suppliers, and veterinarians often assume a high supplementation level is required. Also, as a way of optimizing and simplifying premixes, many systems reported using the same premix for sows and nursery phases 1 and 2, with different inclusion rates. This practice could contribute to the use of levels other than the NRC (2012) recommendations.
Some vitamins were included at or slightly below NRC (2012) requirement estimates. Pyridoxine inclusion rates in nursery and niacin in grow-finishing diets were added slightly below the NRC (2012). We hypothesize this might be due to an increase in the recommendations from the 1998 to the 2012 versions of the NRC and thus current supplementation practices do not reflect this change. Choline was also, on average, reported below NRC (2012). This is likely related to the choline contribution from grain and soybean meal in the complete diet being considered in the nutrient values of the diet. Vitamin D levels used for boars were the highest discrepancy to the NRC (2012), at 1,355% of the recommendation. Because the NRC (2012) recommends 800 and 200 mg/kg of vitamin D for sows and boars, respectively, and all respondents used the same premix for both, this high ratio for boars is the result of the lower requirement estimate compared to sows.
This survey highlighted an increase in the use of alternative vitamin and trace mineral sources compared to Flohr et al. (2016). Approximately 40% of respondents used alternative sources of vitamin D for the breeding herd and organic or chelated Zn, Cu, Mn, and Se for breeding herd and nursery pigs. The development of new products by nutrition suppliers, the progress of nutrient manufacture technologies, vitamins stability in the final diet, and the focus on improving health quality through nutrition may have guided this trend. Additionally, most of the alternative sources currently used, frequently presents a more bioavailable nutrient to improve utilization by the animal. Compared to Flohr et al. (2016), this survey captured a larger representation of the U.S. swine industry and the difference in respondents probably reflects many of the changes when comparing both surveys.
Although considerable research has been developed around alternatives to zinc oxide, respondents indicated that they still use pharmacological levels of Zn in the first two nursery phases and Cu in the last nursery phase to help with pigs’ enteric issues. For Zn, 94% and 81% of the systems reported Zn levels over 900 mg/kg from wean to 7 kg and 7 to 11 kg, respectively. From 11 to 23 kg, 58% of the systems reported the use of pharmacological levels of Cu (>50 mg/kg). The combination of high Zn in the first two phases and high Cu in the last was shown by Shelton et al. (2011) as a strategy to improve nursery growth performance.
Recently, two other surveys were published summarizing vitamins and trace minerals levels used in the Brazilian (Dalto and da Silva, 2020) and Chinese (Yang et al., 2021) swine industries. Both surveys reported a wide variation among production systems in those countries. When comparing the main results between surveys, Brazil has a higher supplementation level of fat-soluble vitamins in all production phases compared to China and United States, mainly due to high levels of vitamin A usage. The same result was found for water-soluble vitamins in the nursery and grow-finishing, with Brazil using high levels mainly driven by added choline. However, for breeding herd, the U.S. swine industry has higher supplementation levels for choline compared to China and Brazil’s usage levels. Finally, driven by zinc, the U.S. industry is the one that uses more elevated levels of trace minerals on average. Regardless, the Chinese swine industry had higher supplementation levels of trace minerals for grow-finishing, sows, and boars mainly because of a higher level of iron.
In conclusion, this survey updated the current inclusion levels of vitamins and trace minerals in U.S. swine diets and can be used as an industry benchmark. Different herd health status and vitamin and trace mineral sources, and diet formulation philosophy with a margin-of-safety mindset are reflected in the variation found in vitamin and trace mineral concentrations observed in production phases. Finally, comparisons to the most recent NRC (2012) requirement estimates highlight the necessity of future research to better understand vitamin and trace mineral requirements in swine diets.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are thankful for all swine nutritionists who shared information to the survey.
Conflict of interest statement. The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Contributor Information
Jamil E G Faccin, Department of Animal Sciences and Industry, College of Agriculture, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506-0201, USA.
Mike D Tokach, Department of Animal Sciences and Industry, College of Agriculture, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506-0201, USA.
Robert D Goodband, Department of Animal Sciences and Industry, College of Agriculture, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506-0201, USA.
Joel M DeRouchey, Department of Animal Sciences and Industry, College of Agriculture, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506-0201, USA.
Jason C Woodworth, Department of Animal Sciences and Industry, College of Agriculture, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506-0201, USA.
Jordan T Gebhardt, Department of Diagnostic Medicine/Pathobiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506-0201, USA.
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