Abstract
Cancer is one of the leading causes of human death worldwide. Treatment of cancer exhausts significant medical resources, and the morbidity and mortality caused by cancer is a huge social burden. Cancer has therefore become a serious economic and social problem shared globally. As an increasingly prevalent disease in China, cancer is a huge challenge for the country’s healthcare system. Based on recent data published in the Journal of the National Cancer Center on cancer incidence and mortality in China in 2016, we analyzed the current trends in cancer incidence and changes in cancer mortality and survival rate in China. And also, we examined several key risk factors for cancer pathogenesis and discussed potential countermeasures for cancer prevention and treatment in China.
Keywords: cancer, incidence, mortality, survival, statistics, countermeasures, China
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (U21A20382, U20A20367, 82072374), the Overseas Expertise Introduction Project for Discipline Innovation (BP1221008) and the Natural Science Foundation of Hunan Province (2021JJ30897, 2021JJ41043).
Footnotes
Compliance and ethics
The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
Contributor Information
Wei Xiong, Email: xiongwei@csu.edu.cn.
He Huang, Email: huanghe@csu.edu.cn.
References
- Alipour M. Molecular mechanism of helicobacter pylori-induced gastric cancer. J Gastrointest Canc. 2021;52:23–30. doi: 10.1007/s12029-020-00518-5. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Avgerinos KI, Spyrou N, Mantzoros CS, Dalamaga M. Obesity and cancer risk: emerging biological mechanisms and perspectives. Metabolism. 2019;92:121–135. doi: 10.1016/j.metabol.2018.11.001. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Bagchi S, Yuan R, Engleman EG. Immune checkpoint inhibitors for the treatment of cancer: clinical impact and mechanisms of response and resistance. Annu Rev Pathol Mech Dis. 2021;16:223–249. doi: 10.1146/annurev-pathol-042020-042741. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Bradley SH, Hatton NLF, Aslam R, Bhartia B, Callister ME, Kennedy MP, Mounce LT, Shinkins B, Hamilton WT, Neal RD. Estimating lung cancer risk from chest X-ray and symptoms: a prospective cohort study. Br J Gen Pract. 2021;71:e280–e286. doi: 10.3399/bjgp20X713993. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Brisson M, Kim JJ, Canfell K, Drolet M, Gingras G, Burger EA, Martin D, Simms KT, Bénard É, Boily MC, et al. Impact of HPV vaccination and cervical screening on cervical cancer elimination: a comparative modelling analysis in 78 low-income and lower-middle-income countries. Lancet. 2020;395:575–590. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30068-4. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cao M, Li H, Sun D, Chen W. Cancer burden of major cancers in China: a need for sustainable actions. Cancer Commun. 2020;40:205–210. doi: 10.1002/cac2.12025. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cao W, Chen HD, Yu YW, Li N, Chen WQ. Changing profiles of cancer burden worldwide and in China: a secondary analysis of the global cancer statistics 2020. Chin Med J. 2021;134:783–791. doi: 10.1097/CM9.0000000000001474. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Carlsson SV, Vickers AJ. Screening for prostate cancer. Med Clin N Am. 2020;104:1051–1062. doi: 10.1016/j.mcna.2020.08.007. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Chan SCH, Liang JQ. Advances in tests for colorectal cancer screening and diagnosis. Expert Rev Mol Diag. 2022;22:449–460. doi: 10.1080/14737159.2022.2065197. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Chang MH. Prevention of hepatitis B virus infection and liver cancer. Recent Results Cancer Res. 2021;217:71–90. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-57362-1_4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cheever MA, Higano CS. PROVENGE (Sipuleucel-T) in prostate cancer: the first FDA-approved therapeutic cancer vaccine. Clin Cancer Res. 2011;17:3520–3526. doi: 10.1158/1078-0432.CCR-10-3126. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Chen CP. Role of external beam radiotherapy in hepatocellular carcinoma. Clin Liver Dis. 2020;24:701–717. doi: 10.1016/j.cld.2020.07.006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Chen TY, Fang YH, Chen HL, Chang CH, Huang H, Chen YS, Liao KM, Wu HY, Chang GC, Tsai YH, et al. Impact of cooking oil fume exposure and fume extractor use on lung cancer risk in non-smoking Han Chinese women. Sci Rep. 2020;10:6774. doi: 10.1038/s41598-020-63656-7. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Chen W, Sun K, Zheng R, Zeng H, Zhang S, Xia C, Yang Z, Li H, Zou X, He J. Cancer incidence and mortality in China, 2014. Chin J Cancer Res. 2018;30:1–12. doi: 10.21147/j.issn.1000-9604.2018.01.01. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Chen Y, Yang C, Li N, Wang Z, Wu P, Du J, Jiang J. Effects of population aging on the mortality burden of related cancers in urban and rural areas of China, 2004–2017: a population-based study. Cancer Biol Med. 2022;19:696–706. doi: 10.20892/j.issn.2095-3941.2021.0538. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Chen Z, Ma Y, Hua J, Wang Y, Guo H. Impacts from economic development and environmental factors on life expectancy: a comparative study based on data from both developed and developing countries from 2004 to 2016. Int J Environ Res Public Health. 2021;18:8559. doi: 10.3390/ijerph18168559. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cheng Z, Li M, Dey R, Chen Y. Nanomaterials for cancer therapy: current progress and perspectives. J Hematol Oncol. 2021;14:85. doi: 10.1186/s13045-021-01096-0. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Cox B, Sneyd MJ, Hingston G, McBride D, Bagshaw PF. Enhancing bowel screening: preventing colorectal cancer by flexible sigmoidoscopy in New Zealand. Public Health. 2020;179:27–37. doi: 10.1016/j.puhe.2019.09.021. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Crosby D, Bhatia S, Brindle KM, Coussens LM, Dive C, Emberton M, Esener S, Fitzgerald RC, Gambhir SS, Kuhn P, et al. Early detection of cancer. Science. 2022;375:eaay9040. doi: 10.1126/science.aay9040. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- De Mattos-Arruda L, Vazquez M, Finotello F, Lepore R, Porta E, Hundal J, Amengual-Rigo P, Ng CKY, Valencia A, Carrillo J, et al. Neoantigen prediction and computational perspectives towards clinical benefit: recommendations from the ESMO Precision Medicine Working Group. Ann Oncol. 2020;31:978–990. doi: 10.1016/j.annonc.2020.05.008. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Dilalla V, Chaput G, Williams T, Sultanem K. Radiotherapy side effects: integrating a survivorship clinical lens to better serve patients. Curr Oncol. 2020;27:107–112. doi: 10.3747/co.27.6233. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Dundar Y, Eldem I, Schwartz C, Pomeroy L, Cordero J, Arslan O, Levent F. Screening awareness of HPV-related oropharyngeal cancers and attitudes and concerns towards HPV vaccination among parents. J Canc Educ. 2022;37:1152–1160. doi: 10.1007/s13187-020-01932-w. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ebben JD, Lubet RA, Gad E, Disis ML, You M. Epidermal growth factor receptor derived peptide vaccination to prevent lung adenocarcinoma formation: An in vivo study in a murine model of EGFR mutant lung cancer. Mol Carcinog. 2016;55:1517–1525. doi: 10.1002/mc.22405. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Enokida T, Moreira A, Bhardwaj N. Vaccines for immunoprevention of cancer. J Clin Invest. 2021;131:e146956. doi: 10.1172/JCI146956. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Fan C, Qu H, Xiong F, Tang Y, Tang T, Zhang L, Mo Y, Li X, Guo C, Zhang S, et al. CircARHGAP12 promotes nasopharyngeal carcinoma migration and invasion via ezrin-mediated cytoskeletal remodeling. Cancer Lett. 2021;496:41–56. doi: 10.1016/j.canlet.2020.09.006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Fan C, Zhang S, Gong Z, Li X, Xiang B, Deng H, Zhou M, Li G, Li Y, Xiong W, et al. Emerging role of metabolic reprogramming in tumor immune evasion and immunotherapy. Sci China Life Sci. 2021;64:534–547. doi: 10.1007/s11427-019-1735-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Feng RM, Zong YN, Cao SM, Xu RH. Current cancer situation in China: good or bad news from the 2018 Global Cancer Statistics? Cancer Commun. 2019;39:22. doi: 10.1186/s40880-019-0368-6. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Gago T, Caldeira P, Cunha C, Campelo P, Guerreiro H. Can we optimize the CEA as a response marker in rectal cancer? Rev Esp Enferm Dig. 2021;113:423–428. doi: 10.17235/reed.2020.7321/2020. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ganesh K, Massagué J. Targeting metastatic cancer. Nat Med. 2021;27:34–44. doi: 10.1038/s41591-020-01195-4. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ganti AK, Klein AB, Cotarla I, Seal B, Chou E. Update of incidence, prevalence, survival, and initial treatment in patients with non-small cell lung cancer in the US. JAMA Oncol. 2021;7:1824–1832. doi: 10.1001/jamaoncol.2021.4932. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Garbayo E, Pascual-Gil S, Rodríguez-Nogales C, Saludas L, Estella-Hermoso de Mendoza A, Blanco-Prieto MJ. Nanomedicine and drug delivery systems in cancer and regenerative medicine. WIREs Nanomed Nanobiotechnol. 2020;12:e1637. doi: 10.1002/wnan.1637. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ge J, Wang J, Xiong F, Jiang X, Zhu K, Wang Y, Mo Y, Gong Z, Zhang S, He Y, et al. Epstein-barr virus-encoded circular RNA CircBART2.2 promotes immune escape of nasopharyngeal carcinoma by regulating PD-L1. Cancer Res. 2021;81:5074–5088. doi: 10.1158/0008-5472.CAN-20-4321. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ghafouri-Fard S, Honarmand Tamizkar K, Jamali E, Taheri M, Ayatollahi SA. Contribution of circRNAs in gastric cancer. Pathol-Res Pract. 2021;227:153640. doi: 10.1016/j.prp.2021.153640. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Grobbee EJ, van der Vlugt M, van Vuuren AJ, Stroobants AK, Mallant-Hent RC, Lansdorp-Vogelaar I, Bossuyt PMM, Kuipers EJ, Dekker E, Spaander MCW. Diagnostic yield of one-time colonoscopy vs. one-time flexible sigmoidoscopy vs multiple rounds of mailed fecal immunohistochemical tests in colorectal cancer screening. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2020;18:667–675.e1. doi: 10.1016/j.cgh.2019.08.015. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Gu X, Zheng S, Zhang H, Sun X, Zhou Q. The cross-talk of cancer-associated fibroblasts assist in prognosis and immunotherapy in patients with breast carcinoma. Cancer Gene Ther. 2022;29:2001–2012. doi: 10.1038/s41417-022-00514-w. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Gulhati P, Yin J, Pederson L, Schmoll HJ, Hoff P, Douillard JY, Hecht JR, Tournigand C, Tebbut N, Chibaudel B, et al. Threshold change in CEA as a predictor of non-progression to first-line systemic therapy in metastatic colorectal cancer patients with elevated CEA. J Natl Cancer Inst. 2020;112:1127–1136. doi: 10.1093/jnci/djaa020. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Harbeck N, Rastogi P, Martin M, Tolaney SM, Shao ZM, Fasching PA, Huang CS, Jaliffe GG, Tryakin A, Goetz MP, et al. Adjuvant abemaciclib combined with endocrine therapy for high-risk early breast cancer: updated efficacy and Ki-67 analysis from the monarchE study. Ann Oncol. 2021;32:1571–1581. doi: 10.1016/j.annonc.2021.09.015. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Heidrich I, Ačkar L, Mossahebi Mohammadi P, Pantel K. Liquid biopsies: potential and challenges. Int J Cancer. 2021;148:528–545. doi: 10.1002/ijc.33217. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Holstein SA, Lunning MA. CAR T-cell therapy in hematologic malignancies: a voyage in progress. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2020;107:112–122. doi: 10.1002/cpt.1674. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hong M, Tang K, Qian J, Deng H, Zeng M, Zheng S, Ding K, Du Y, Sun R. Immunotherapy for EBV-associated nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Crit Rev Oncog. 2018;23:219–234. doi: 10.1615/CritRevOncog.2018027528. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hu D, Yuan S, Zhong J, Liu Z, Wang Y, Liu L, Li J, Wen F, Liu J, Zhang J. Cellular senescence and hematological malignancies: from pathogenesis to therapeutics. Pharmacol Ther. 2021;223:107817. doi: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2021.107817. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hua H, Zhang H, Chen J, Wang J, Liu J, Jiang Y. Targeting Akt in cancer for precision therapy. J Hematol Oncol. 2021;14:128. doi: 10.1186/s13045-021-01137-8. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Hudson K, Cross N, Jordan-Mahy N, Leyland R. The extrinsic and intrinsic roles of PD-L1 and its receptor PD-1: implications for immunotherapy treatment. Front Immunol. 2020;11:568931. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.568931. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jeon J, Holford TR, Levy DT, Feuer EJ, Cao P, Tam J, Clarke L, Clarke J, Kong CY, Meza R. Smoking and lung cancer mortality in the United States from 2015 to 2065. Ann Intern Med. 2018;169:684–693. doi: 10.7326/M18-1250. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Jiang Y, Liang X, Wang W, Chen C, Yuan Q, Zhang X, Li N, Chen H, Yu J, Xie Y, et al. Noninvasive prediction of occult peritoneal metastasis in gastric cancer using deep learning. JAMA Netw Open. 2021;4:e2032269. doi: 10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.32269. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kant R, Davis A, Verma V. Thyroid Nodules: advances in evaluation and management. Am Family Phys. 2020;102:298–304. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kantoff PW, Higano CS, Shore ND, Berger ER, Small EJ, Penson DF, Redfern CH, Ferrari AC, Dreicer R, Sims RB, et al. Sipuleucel-T immunotherapy for castration-resistant prostate cancer. N Engl J Med. 2010;363:411–422. doi: 10.1056/NEJMoa1001294. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Karuturi MS, Sedrak MS, Magnuson A, Freedman R, Jatoi A, Smith BD, Kimmick GG. Breast cancer and aging: standing on the shoulders of a giant. J Geriatr Oncol. 2020;11:212–216. doi: 10.1016/j.jgo.2019.05.019. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Key T. Hormones and cancer in humans. Mutat Res Fund Mol Mech Mut. 1995;333:59–67. doi: 10.1016/0027-5107(95)00132-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Khan MS, Savoy M. Impact of human papillomavirus vaccination in reducing cancer. Prim Care. 2020;47:529–537. doi: 10.1016/j.pop.2020.05.007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kloor M, Reuschenbach M, Karbach J, Rafiyan M, Al-Batran SE, Pauligk C, Jaeger E, von Knebel Doeberitz M. Vaccination of MSI-H colorectal cancer patients with frameshift peptide antigens: a phase I/IIa clinical trial. J Clin Oncol. 2015;33:3020. doi: 10.1200/jco.2015.33.15_suppl.3020. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- Kolb R, Sutterwala FS, Zhang W. Obesity and cancer: inflammation bridges the two. Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2016;29:77–89. doi: 10.1016/j.coph.2016.07.005. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Krajewska J, Kukulska A, Oczko-Wojciechowska M, Kotecka-Blicharz A, Drosik-Rutowicz K, Haras-Gil M, Jarzab B, Handkiewicz-Junak D. Early diagnosis of low-risk papillary thyroid cancer results rather in overtreatment than a better survival. Front Endocrinol. 2020;11:571421. doi: 10.3389/fendo.2020.571421. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Kunte S, Abraham J, Montero AJ. Novel HER2-targeted therapies for HER2-positive metastatic breast cancer. Cancer. 2020;126:4278–4288. doi: 10.1002/cncr.33102. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lee MW, Pourmorady JS, Laine L. Use of fecal occult blood testing as a diagnostic tool for clinical indications: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Gastroenterol. 2020;115:662–670. doi: 10.14309/ajg.0000000000000495. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lee YJ, Park JH, Lee SH. A study on the prediction of cancer using whole-genome data and deep learning. Int J Mol Sci. 2022;23:10396. doi: 10.3390/ijms231810396. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Legler JM, Feuer EJ, Potosky AL, Merrill RM, Kramer BS. The role of prostate-specific antigen (PSA) testing patterns in the recent prostate cancer incidence decline in the United States. Cancer Causes Control. 1998;9:519–527. doi: 10.1023/A:1008805718310. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Li K, Zhang A, Li X, Zhang H, Zhao L. Advances in clinical immunotherapy for gastric cancer. Biochim Biophys Acta. 2021;1876:188615. doi: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2021.188615. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Li CL, Shao CM, He CX, Ren CS, Tian CT. Risk of lung cancer due to external environmental factor and epidemiological data analysis. Math Biosci Eng. 2021;18:6079–6094. doi: 10.3934/mbe.2021304. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Liang D, Wang J, Li D, Shi J, Jing J, Shan B, He Y. Lung cancer in never-smokers: a multicenter case-control study in North China. Front Oncol. 2019;9:1354. doi: 10.3389/fonc.2019.01354. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lin YS, Chen Y, Tsai YH, Tseng SH, Lin KS. In vivo imaging of neuroblastomas using GD2-targeting graphene quantum dots. J Pediatr Surg. 2021;56:1227–1232. doi: 10.1016/j.jpedsurg.2021.03.035. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Liu C, Zhao Y, Okwan-Duodu D, Basho R, Cui X. COVID-19 in cancer patients: risk, clinical features, and management. Cancer Biol Med. 2020;17:519–527. doi: 10.20892/j.issn.2095-3941.2020.0289. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lotter W, Diab AR, Haslam B, Kim JG, Grisot G, Wu E, Wu K, Onieva JO, Boyer Y, Boxerman JL, et al. Robust breast cancer detection in mammography and digital breast tomosynthesis using an annotation-efficient deep learning approach. Nat Med. 2021;27:244–249. doi: 10.1038/s41591-020-01174-9. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Lu Y, Li P, Luo G, Liu D, Zou H. Cancer attributable to human papillomavirus infection in China: burden and trends. Cancer. 2020;126:3719–3732. doi: 10.1002/cncr.32986. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Machlowska J, Baj J, Sitarz M, Maciejewski R, Sitarz R. Gastric cancer: epidemiology, risk factors, classification, genomic characteristics and treatment strategies. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21:4012. doi: 10.3390/ijms21114012. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Mao X, Xu J, Wang W, Liang C, Hua J, Liu J, Zhang B, Meng Q, Yu X, Shi S. Crosstalk between cancer-associated fibroblasts and immune cells in the tumor microenvironment: new findings and future perspectives. Mol Cancer. 2021;20:131. doi: 10.1186/s12943-021-01428-1. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Miranda-Galvis M, Loveless R, Kowalski LP, Teng Y. Impacts of environmental factors on head and neck cancer pathogenesis and progression. Cells. 2021;10:389. doi: 10.3390/cells10020389. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Mo Y, Wang Y, Zhang S, Xiong F, Yan Q, Jiang X, Deng X, Wang Y, Fan C, Tang L, et al. Circular RNA circRNF13 inhibits proliferation and metastasis of nasopharyngeal carcinoma via SUMO2. Mol Cancer. 2021;20:112. doi: 10.1186/s12943-021-01409-4. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Mutebi M, Anderson BO, Duggan C, Adebamowo C, Agarwal G, Ali Z, Bird P, Bourque JM, DeBoer R, Gebrim LH, et al. Breast cancer treatment: a phased approach to implementation. Cancer. 2020;126:2365–2378. doi: 10.1002/cncr.32910. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Nault JC, Villanueva A. Biomarkers for hepatobiliary cancers. Hepatology. 2021;73:115–127. doi: 10.1002/hep.31175. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ogrodnik M. Cellular aging beyond cellular senescence: markers of senescence prior to cell cycle arrest in vitro and in vivo. Aging Cell. 2021;20:e13338. doi: 10.1111/acel.13338. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ott PA, Hu-Lieskovan S, Chmielowski B, Govindan R, Naing A, Bhardwaj N, Margolin K, Awad MM, Hellmann MD, Lin JJ, et al. A phase Ib trial of personalized neoantigen therapy plus anti-PD-1 in patients with advanced melanoma, non-small cell lung cancer, or bladder cancer. Cell. 2020;183:347–362.e24. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2020.08.053. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ou JY, Kirchhoff AC, Hanson HA. Air pollution across the cancer continuum: extending our understanding of the relationship between environmental exposures and cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2020;29:1876–1879. doi: 10.1158/1055-9965.EPI-19-1588. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Oudkerk M, Liu SY, Heuvelmans MA, Walter JE, Field JK. Lung cancer LDCT screening and mortality reduction—evidence, pitfalls and future perspectives. Nat Rev Clin Oncol. 2021;18:135–151. doi: 10.1038/s41571-020-00432-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Pacek LR, McClernon FJ. Decline in the perceived risk of cigarette smoking between 2006 and 2015: findings from a U.S. nationally representative sample. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2018;185:406–410. doi: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2018.01.002. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Phillips E, Wang TW, Husten CG, Corey CG, Apelberg BJ, Jamal A, Homa DM, King BA. Tobacco product use among adults—United States, 2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2017;66:1209–1215. doi: 10.15585/mmwr.mm6644a2. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Poorolajal J, Moradi L, Mohammadi Y, Cheraghi Z, Gohari-Ensaf F. Risk factors for stomach cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Epidemiol Health. 2020;42:e2020004. doi: 10.4178/epih.e2020004. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Pui CH. Precision medicine in acute lymphoblastic leukemia. Front Med. 2020;14:689–700. doi: 10.1007/s11684-020-0759-8. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Robertson DJ, Selby K. Fecal immunochemical test: the world’s colorectal cancer screening test. Gastrointest Endosc Clin N Am. 2020;30:511–526. doi: 10.1016/j.giec.2020.02.011. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Rumgay H, Murphy N, Ferrari P, Soerjomataram I. Alcohol and cancer: epidemiology and biological mechanisms. Nutrients. 2021;13:3173. doi: 10.3390/nu13093173. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Saw PE, Xu X, Chen J, Song EW. Non-coding RNAs: the new central dogma of cancer biology. Sci China Life Sci. 2021;64:22–50. doi: 10.1007/s11427-020-1700-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Schiller JT, Lowy DR. An introduction to virus infections and human cancer. Recent Results Cancer Res. 2021;217:1–11. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-57362-1_1. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Shao Y, Hua Z, Zhao L, Shen Y, Guo X, Niu C, Wei W, Liu F. Time trends of gastrointestinal cancers incidence and mortality in Yangzhong from 1991 to 2015: an updated age-period-cohort analysis. Front Oncol. 2018;8:638. doi: 10.3389/fonc.2018.00638. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Shi J, Cao M, Wang Y, Bai F-, Lei L, Peng J, Feletto E, Canfell K, Qu C, Chen W. Is it possible to halve the incidence of liver cancer in China by 2050? Int J Cancer. 2021;148:1051–1065. doi: 10.1002/ijc.33313. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Siegel RL, Miller KD, Fuchs HE, Jemal A. Cancer statistics, 2022. CA Cancer J Clin. 2022;72:7–33. doi: 10.3322/caac.21708. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Slingluff CL, Blumenstein BA, Lewis KD, Andtbacka RHI, Hyngstrom JR, Milhem MM, Markovic S, Hamid O, Hernandez-Aya LF, Bowles TL, et al. Final analysis of relapse-free survival in a multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial of seviprotimut-L polyvalent melanoma vaccine after resection of high-risk melanoma. J Clin Oncol. 2020;38:10017. doi: 10.1200/JCO.2020.38.15_suppl.10017. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
- Su Y, Yao Q, Xu Y, Yu C, Zhang J, Wang Q, Li J, Shi D, Yu B, Zeng Y, et al. Characteristics of germline non-BRCA mutation status of high-risk breast cancer patients in China and correlation with high-risk factors and multigene testing suggestions. Front Genet. 2021;12:674094. doi: 10.3389/fgene.2021.674094. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Sun D, Li H, Cao M, He S, Lei L, Peng J, Chen W. Cancer burden in China: trends, risk factors and prevention. Cancer Biol Med. 2020;17:879–895. doi: 10.20892/j.issn.2095-3941.2020.0387. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Syed YY. Sacituzumab govitecan: first approval. Drugs. 2020;80:1019–1025. doi: 10.1007/s40265-020-01337-5. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Tan S, Li D, Zhu X. Cancer immunotherapy: pros, cons and beyond. Biomed Pharmacother. 2020;124:109821. doi: 10.1016/j.biopha.2020.109821. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Tang L, Xiong W, Zhang L, Wang D, Wang Y, Wu Y, Wei F, Mo Y, Hou X, Shi L, et al. circSETD3 regulates MAPRE1 through miR-615-5p and miR-1538 sponges to promote migration and invasion in nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Oncogene. 2021;40:307–321. doi: 10.1038/s41388-020-01531-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Tchkonia T, Palmer AK, Kirkland JL. New horizons: novel approaches to enhance healthspan through targeting cellular senescence and related aging mechanisms. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2021;106:e1481–e1487. doi: 10.1210/clinem/dgaa728. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Tellez-Gabriel M, Knutsen E, Perander M. Current status of circulating tumor cells, circulating tumor DNA, and exosomes in breast cancer liquid biopsies. Int J Mol Sci. 2020;21:9457. doi: 10.3390/ijms21249457. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Ti D, Bai M, Li X, Wei J, Chen D, Wu Z, Wang Y, Han W. Adaptive T cell immunotherapy in cancer. Sci China Life Sci. 2021;64:363–371. doi: 10.1007/s11427-020-1713-9. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Toh CK, Ong WS, Lim WT, Tan DSW, Ng QS, Kanesvaran R, Seow WJ, Ang MK, Tan EH. A decade of never-smokers among lung cancer patients—increasing trend and improved survival. Clin Lung Cancer. 2018;19:e539–e550. doi: 10.1016/j.cllc.2018.03.013. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Tsang JYS, Tse GM. Molecular classification of breast cancer. Adv Anatom Pathol. 2020;27:27–35. doi: 10.1097/PAP.0000000000000232. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Uhlenhopp DJ, Then EO, Sunkara T, Gaduputi V. Epidemiology of esophageal cancer: update in global trends, etiology and risk factors. Clin J Gastroenterol. 2020;13:1010–1021. doi: 10.1007/s12328-020-01237-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- van den Berg I, Coebergh van den Braak RRJ, van Vugt JLA, Ijzermans JNM, Buettner S. Actual survival after resection of primary colorectal cancer: results from a prospective multicenter study. World J Surg Onc. 2021;19:96. doi: 10.1186/s12957-021-02207-4. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wan X. Protecting people from tobacco smoke in China: current status and challenges. China CDC Weekly. 2022;4:460–464. doi: 10.46234/ccdcw2022.102. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wang G, Qiu M, Xing X, Zhou J, Yao H, Li M, Yin R, Hou Y, Li Y, Pan S, et al. Lung cancer scRNA-seq and lipidomics reveal aberrant lipid metabolism for early-stage diagnosis. Sci Transl Med. 2022;14:eabk2756. doi: 10.1126/scitranslmed.abk2756. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wang H, Ellipilli S, Lee WJ, Li X, Vieweger M, Ho YS, Guo P. Multivalent rubber-like RNA nanoparticles for targeted co-delivery of paclitaxel and MiRNA to silence the drug efflux transporter and liver cancer drug resistance. J Control Release. 2021;330:173–184. doi: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2020.12.007. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wang J, Ge J, Wang Y, Xiong F, Guo J, Jiang X, Zhang L, Deng X, Gong Z, Zhang S, et al. EBV miRNAs BART11 and BART17-3p promote immune escape through the enhancer-mediated transcription of PD-L1. Nat Commun. 2022;13:866. doi: 10.1038/s41467-022-28479-2. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wang QT, Nie Y, Sun SN, Lin T, Han RJ, Jiang J, Li Z, Li JQ, Xiao YP, Fan YY, et al. Tumor-associated antigen-based personalized dendritic cell vaccine in solid tumor patients. Cancer Immunol Immunother. 2020;69:1375–1387. doi: 10.1007/s00262-020-02496-w. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wang R, Pan W, Jin L, Huang W, Li Y, Wu D, Gao C, Ma D, Liao S. Human papillomavirus vaccine against cervical cancer: opportunity and challenge. Cancer Lett. 2020;471:88–102. doi: 10.1016/j.canlet.2019.11.039. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wang S, Zhang K, Tan S, Xin J, Yuan Q, Xu H, Xu X, Liang Q, Christiani DC, Wang M, et al. Circular RNAs in body fluids as cancer biomarkers: the new frontier of liquid biopsies. Mol Cancer. 2021;20:13. doi: 10.1186/s12943-020-01298-z. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wang W, Yuan T, Ma L, Zhu Y, Bao J, Zhao X, Zhao Y, Zong Y, Zhang Y, Yang S, et al. Hepatobiliary tumor organoids reveal HLA class I neoantigen landscape and antitumoral activity of neoantigen peptide enhanced with immune checkpoint inhibitors. Adv Sci. 2022;9:2105810. doi: 10.1002/advs.202105810. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wei G, Wang Y, Yang G, Wang Y, Ju R. Recent progress in nanomedicine for enhanced cancer chemotherapy. Theranostics. 2021;11:6370–6392. doi: 10.7150/thno.57828. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Welch HG, Albertsen PC. Prostate cancer diagnosis and treatment after the introduction of prostate-specific antigen screening: 1986–2005. J Natl Cancer Insti. 2009;101:1325–1329. doi: 10.1093/jnci/djp278. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- White AJ, Gregoire AM, Niehoff NM, Bertrand KA, Palmer JR, Coogan PF, Bethea TN. Air pollution and breast cancer risk in the Black Women’s Health Study. Environ Res. 2021;194:110651. doi: 10.1016/j.envres.2020.110651. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Willsmore ZN, Coumbe BGT, Crescioli S, Reci S, Gupta A, Harris RJ, Chenoweth A, Chauhan J, Bax HJ, McCraw A, et al. Combined anti-PD-1 and anti-CTLA-4 checkpoint blockade: treatment of melanoma and immune mechanisms of action. Eur J Immunol. 2021;51:544–556. doi: 10.1002/eji.202048747. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wu J, Zhao X, Sun J, Cheng C, Yin C, Bai R. The epidemic of thyroid cancer in China: current trends and future prediction. Front Oncol. 2022;12:932729. doi: 10.3389/fonc.2022.932729. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Wu Y, Li Y, Giovannucci E. Potential impact of time trend of lifestyle risk factors on burden of major gastrointestinal cancers in China. Gastroenterology. 2021;161:1830–1841.e8. doi: 10.1053/j.gastro.2021.08.006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Xia C, Dong X, Li H, Cao M, Sun D, He S, Yang F, Yan X, Zhang S, Li N, et al. Cancer statistics in China and United States, 2022: profiles, trends, and determinants. Chin Med J. 2022;135:584–590. doi: 10.1097/CM9.0000000000002108. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Xie J, Zhong R, Zhu L, Chang X, Chen J, Wang W, Zhang L, Chen O, Yu X, Zou Y, Li Y. Smoking cessation rate and factors affecting the success of quitting in a smoking cessation clinic using telephone follow-up. Tob Induc Dis. 2021;19:99. doi: 10.18332/tid/143375. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Xie L, Wang S, Qian Y, Jia S, Wang J, Li L, Zhang W, Yu H, Bao P, Qian B. Increasing gap between thyroid cancer incidence and mortality in urban Shanghai, China: an analysis spanning 43 years. Endocrine Pract. 2021;27:1100–1107. doi: 10.1016/j.eprac.2021.06.002. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Xie Y. Hepatitis B virus-associated hepatocellular carcinoma. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2017;1018:11–21. doi: 10.1007/978-981-10-5765-6_2. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Xu M, Yao Y, Chen H, Zhang S, Cao SM, Zhang Z, Luo B, Liu Z, Li Z, Xiang T, et al. Genome sequencing analysis identifies Epstein-Barr virus subtypes associated with high risk of nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Nat Genet. 2019;51:1131–1136. doi: 10.1038/s41588-019-0436-5. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Xu S, Han Y. The overdiagnosis of thyroid micropapillary carcinoma: the rising incidence, inert biological behavior, and countermeasures. J Oncol. 2021;2021:5544232. doi: 10.1155/2021/5544232. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Xu W, Zhou G, Wang H, Liu Y, Chen B, Chen W, Lin C, Wu S, Gong A, Xu M. Circulating lncRNA SNHG11 as a novel biomarker for early diagnosis and prognosis of colorectal cancer. Int J Cancer. 2020;146:2901–2912. doi: 10.1002/ijc.32747. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Xu Z, Zhang Y, Dai H, Han B. Epithelial-mesenchymal transition-mediated tumor therapeutic resistance. Molecules. 2022;27:4750. doi: 10.3390/molecules27154750. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Xue C, Li G, Lu J, Li L. Crosstalk between circRNAs and the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway in cancer progression. Sig Transduct Target Ther. 2021;6:400. doi: 10.1038/s41392-021-00788-w. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Xue Y, Wang L, Zhang Y, Zhao Y, Liu Y. Air pollution: a culprit of lung cancer. J Hazard Mater. 2022;434:128937. doi: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.128937. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Yang D, Liu Y, Bai C, Wang X, Powell CA. Epidemiology of lung cancer and lung cancer screening programs in China and the United States. Cancer Lett. 2020;468:82–87. doi: 10.1016/j.canlet.2019.10.009. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Yang J, Wang ZY, Huang L, Yu TL, Wan SQ, Song J, Zhang BL, Hu M. Do betel quid and areca nut chewing deteriorate prognosis of oral cancer? A systematic review, meta-analysis, and research agenda. Oral Dis. 2021;27:1366–1375. doi: 10.1111/odi.13456. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Yang J, Xu R, Wang C, Qiu J, Ren B, You L. Early screening and diagnosis strategies of pancreatic cancer: a comprehensive review. Cancer Commun. 2021;41:1257–1274. doi: 10.1002/cac2.12204. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Yang JD, Heimbach JK. New advances in the diagnosis and management of hepatocellular carcinoma. BMJ. 2020;371:m3544. doi: 10.1136/bmj.m3544. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Yang JJ, Yu D, Xiang YB, Blot W, White E, Robien K, Sinha R, Park Y, Takata Y, Lazovich DA, et al. Association of dietary fiber and yogurt consumption with lung cancer risk. JAMA Oncol. 2020;6:e194107. doi: 10.1001/jamaoncol.2019.4107. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Yang L, Parkin DM, Li L, Chen Y. Time trends in cancer mortality in China: 1987–1999. Int J Cancer. 2003;106:771–783. doi: 10.1002/ijc.11300. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Yang Y, Han Z, Li X, Huang A, Shi J, Gu J. Epidemiology and risk factors of colorectal cancer in China. Chin J Cancer Res. 2020;32:729–741. doi: 10.21147/j.issn.1000-9604.2020.06.06. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Yang Y, Wang HY, Chen YK, Chen JJ, Song C, Gu J. Current status of surgical treatment of rectal cancer in China. Chin Med J. 2020;133:2703–2711. doi: 10.1097/CM9.0000000000001076. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Yang Z, Zhu Y, Xiang G, Hua T, Ni J, Zhao J, Lu Y, Wu Y, Chang F. First-line atezolizumab plus chemotherapy in advanced non-squamous non-small cell lung cancer: a cost-effectiveness analysis from China. Expert Rev Pharm Outcomes Res. 2021;21:1061–1067. doi: 10.1080/14737167.2021.1899813. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Yin J, Wu X, Li S, Li C, Guo Z. Impact of environmental factors on gastric cancer: a review of the scientific evidence, human prevention and adaptation. J Environ Sci. 2020;89:65–79. doi: 10.1016/j.jes.2019.09.025. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Young E, Philpott H, Singh R. Endoscopic diagnosis and treatment of gastric dysplasia and early cancer: current evidence and what the future may hold. World J Gastroenterol. 2021;27:5126–5151. doi: 10.3748/wjg.v27.i31.5126. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Yuan S, Xie SH. Urban-rural disparity in cancer incidence in China, 2008–2012: a cross-sectional analysis of data from 36 cancer registers. BMJ Open. 2021;11:e042762. doi: 10.1136/bmjopen-2020-042762. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Zeng H, Chen W, Zheng R, Zhang S, Ji JS, Zou X, Xia C, Sun K, Yang Z, Li H, et al. Changing cancer survival in China during 2003–2015: a pooled analysis of 17 population-based cancer registries. Lancet Glob Health. 2018;6:e555–e567. doi: 10.1016/S2214-109X(18)30127-X. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Zhang L, Ding J, Li HY, Wang ZH, Wu J. Immunotherapy for advanced hepatocellular carcinoma, where are we? Biochim Biophys Acta. 2020;1874:188441. doi: 10.1016/j.bbcan.2020.188441. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Zhang S, Chen C, Xue C, Chang D, Xu H, Salena BJ, Li Y, Wu ZS. Ribbon of DNA lattice on gold nanoparticles for selective drug delivery to cancer cells. Angew Chem Int Ed. 2020;59:14584–14592. doi: 10.1002/anie.202005624. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Zhang Y, Ma JA, Zhang HX, Jiang YN, Luo WH. Cancer vaccines: targeting KRAS-driven cancers. Expert Rev Vaccines. 2020;19:163–173. doi: 10.1080/14760584.2020.1733420. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Zhang Y, Zhang Z. The history and advances in cancer immunotherapy: understanding the characteristics of tumor-infiltrating immune cells and their therapeutic implications. Cell Mol Immunol. 2020;17:807–821. doi: 10.1038/s41423-020-0488-6. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Zhao K, Zhou X, Xiao Y, Wang Y, Wen L. Research progress in alpha-fetoprotein-induced immunosuppression of liver cancer. Mini Rev Med Chem. 2022;22:2237–2243. doi: 10.2174/1389557522666220218124816. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Zhao L, Fu C, Tan L, Li T, Zhong H, Meng X. Advanced nanotechnology for hypoxia-associated antitumor therapy. Nanoscale. 2020;12:2855–2874. doi: 10.1039/C9NR09071A. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Zheng R, Zhang S, Zeng H, Wang S, Sun K, Chen R, Li L, Wei W, He J. Cancer incidence and mortality in China, 2016. J Natl Cancer Center. 2022;2:1–9. doi: 10.1016/j.jncc.2022.02.002. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Zhou H, Song T. Conversion therapy and maintenance therapy for primary hepatocellular carcinoma. Biosci Trends. 2021;15:155–160. doi: 10.5582/bst.2021.01091. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Zhou Q, Yan X, Zhu H, Xin Z, Zhao J, Shen W, Yin W, Guo Y, Xu H, Zhao M, et al. Identification of three tumor antigens and immune subtypes for mRNA vaccine development in diffuse glioma. Theranostics. 2021;11:9775–9790. doi: 10.7150/thno.61677. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Zhu L, Lin M. The synthesis of nano-doxorubicin and its anticancer effect. Anticancer Agents Med Chem. 2021;21:2466–2477. doi: 10.2174/1871520621666201229115612. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Zhu S, Zhang T, Zheng L, Liu H, Song W, Liu D, Li Z, Pan C. Combination strategies to maximize the benefits of cancer immunotherapy. J Hematol Oncol. 2021;14:156. doi: 10.1186/s13045-021-01164-5. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
- Zi Y, Yang K, He J, Wu Z, Liu J, Zhang W. Strategies to enhance drug delivery to solid tumors by harnessing the EPR effects and alternative targeting mechanisms. Adv Drug Del Rev. 2022;188:114449. doi: 10.1016/j.addr.2022.114449. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]