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. 2023 Apr 22:00219096231168063. doi: 10.1177/00219096231168063

Parental Intimate Partner Violence and Demographic Variables Predict Self-Esteem Among Adolescents in India during COVID-19

Jolly Manyathukudy Louis 1,✉, Marc Eric S Reyes 2
PMCID: PMC10125898

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic may have substantially impacted adolescents’ mental health. Therefore, this study aims to assess the influence of exposure to parental intimate partner violence (IPV) and demographic variables on adolescents’ self-esteem. A cross-sectional approach was used in this study. The sample consisted of 214 adolescents from different areas in Kerala, India, who completed the Cooper Smith Self-Esteem and Child Exposure to Domestic Violence questionnaires. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, multiple regression analysis, and an independent t-test. Results indicated that exposure to parental IPV and demographic variables such as parents’ education, occupation, and family income significantly predict self-esteem in adolescents. Moreover, high exposure to parental IPV may cause low self-esteem in adolescents. School and family-based online interventions are needed to protect IPV-affected adolescents and enhance their self-esteem.

Keywords: Adolescents, intimate partner violence, self-esteem, demographic variables

Introduction

Adolescence is a time of increased brain growth and a vulnerable stage for social and emotional learning; a strong self-identity, an emotional and physical well-being, and an interest in learning are all regarded as crucial elements for healthy development (Rode et al., 2019). As a result, it can hinder a child’s natural and healthy growth when child maltreatment occurs due to parental intimate partner violence (IPV) (Brassard et al., 2020). Various studies have shown that various developmental consequences might result from adolescents’ exposure to parental IPV (Alaggia and Donohue, 2018; Carlson et al., 2019). IPV is defined as “physical violence, sexual violence, stalking, and psychological aggression (including coercive tactics) by a current or former intimate partner” (Breiding et al., 2016).

Research indicates that during COVID-19 in India, there was an increase in IPV (Krishnakumar and Verma, 2021; Maji et al., 2021; Nair and Banerjee, 2021). Data from the National Commission for Women (NCW) revealed that IPV complaints in India increased after the country was locked down (Vora et al., 2020). During the pandemic, the police in Bangalore and Tamil Nadu received increased reports from IPV victims (Kannan, 2020; Peter, 2020). Adolescents exposed to parental IPV had an aggravation of pre-existing difficulties and inequities due to the COVID-19 epidemic (Abramson, 2020; Riddell et al., 2022).

Exposure to parental IPV can occur directly or indirectly. Direct exposure occurs when parents use weapons to threaten or hurt one another after seeing or learning about verbal or physical fighting (Pernebo, 2018). Indirect exposure occurs when an adolescent observes or learns about the psychological and physical impacts of parental violence (Carlson et al., 2019; Fogarty et al., 2019). Direct or indirect exposure to violence throughout adolescence can have lasting, detrimental impacts that can persist into adulthood (National Institute of Justice (NIJ), 2020). A study reports that exposure to IPV may impact adolescent development and contribute to pervasive maladaptive behavior (Pingley, 2017). IPV exposure among adolescents is associated with psychological, behavioral, emotional, social, and physical issues in adolescents, including low self-esteem, anxiety, depression, and various psychosomatic ailments (Alaggia and Donohue, 2018; Pernebo, 2018; Rome and Miller, 2020; Rosser-Limiñana et al., 2020). Children in families where parental IPV is prevalent experience more mood swings, aggression, feelings of fear and inadequacy, despair, rage, helplessness, frustration, vulnerability, humiliation, and stuttering (Haj-Yahia et al., 2019; Patel et al., 2019; Rosser-Limiñana et al., 2020)

Numerous studies demonstrate that parental IPV exposure can negatively affect adolescents’ self-esteem (Cameranesi and Piotrowski, 2018; Carracedo et al., 2018; Sumiarti and Puspitawati, 2017). Early trust, unconditional love, and safety are the foundation for developing self-esteem, which is then shaped by positive and negative judgments throughout life (Positive Psychology, 2010). Adolescents with low self-esteem have various mental health issues, such as anxiety, hostility, sadness, eating disorders, criminal behavior, substance abuse, sexual disorders, and poor academic performance (Anitha and Venus, 2016; Pingley, 2017; Rosser-Limiñana et al., 2020). In addition, it might make adolescents more likely to engage in dangerous behaviors and harm their development (Buyukgoze-Kavas, 2009). The adolescent years can be very difficult regarding self-esteem (Białecka-Pikul et al., 2019). Exposure has a more severe impact on self-esteem.

The social cognitive theory states that every action observed can change a person’s mindset. Similarly, one’s environment might impact later attitudes and behaviors. In a violent environment, a parent’s attitude (also known as cognition) affects the environment in which their children are raised (Bandura et al., 1977). Stantly Cooper smith states that, in his self-esteem theory, adolescents’ ability to develop a positive self-image is affected by how their parents treat them (Hosogi et al., 2012). Therefore, exposure to IPV is closely related to self-esteem in adolescents.

Previous research has demonstrated that adolescents aged 15–19 years have the highest rates of IPV exposure (Decker et al., 2015; Peitzmeier et al., 2016). However, a new study (Kidman et al., 2020) suggests that preventive measures should start before age 15. It underlines the significance of becoming involved earlier in life while still having the chance to break bad habits and boost self-esteem (Jankowiak et al., 2021). Therefore, it is crucial to understand how parental IPV affects adolescents’ self-esteem.

Although IPV is widespread in India, few studies have been conducted on adolescents who have experienced parental IPV. To our knowledge, no study has been conducted in India to assess the impact of parental IPV and self-esteem among adolescents during COVID-19. Therefore, this paper aims to examine the impact of exposure to parental IPV during COVID-19 on the self-esteem of adolescents in India. The hypothesis of this study includes the following: there will be a significant joint and independent influence of socio-demographic factors on self-esteem in adolescents; there will be a significant influence of exposure to parental IPV on self-esteem in adolescents in India; a high exposure to parental IPV will affect the self-esteem of adolescents.

Method

Design and participants

The study utilized a cross-sectional approach and structured questionnaires. The participants in this study were adolescents aged 10–16 years from different schools in Kerala. Due to time and resource limitations, a purposive sampling strategy was used to choose the study’s sample because the information was gathered during the COVID-19 period. The sample of 214 adolescents was selected using G power analysis. The rate of response was 82.7%. Sixty-four incomplete survey questions were left out of this study. Throughout the data collection, ethical precautions were taken. The participants and their parents gave their informed consent.

Measures

Socio-demographic variables

Demographic information of the adolescents was captured, such as age, gender, participants’ education, education status of the family, occupation, and family income

Child Exposure to Domestic Violence scale

Masood’s translation of Edleson et al.’s (2008) Child Exposure to Domestic Violence (CEDV) was used to assess how much children were exposed to domestic violence. The subscales covered Child Involvement in Home Violence (six items), Other Risk Factors (four items), Child Community Violence Exposure (seven items), and Other Victimization (four items). The total number of items was 100. The scale had four response options: never (0), rarely (1), frequently (2), and almost always (3). A high score indicates high exposure to violence. The possible scores are 0 to 99. With an overall alpha of 0.84, Cronbach’s alphas on the CEDV subscales ranged from 0.50 to 0.76.

Cooper Smith Self-Esteem Inventory (CSEI)–School Form

To measure self-esteem, the 58-item Cooper Smith standard scale was applied. Numerous studies have used this questionnaire. Cooper Smith et al. (2002) have reported that test–retest reliability ranges from 0.88 (over 5 weeks) to 0.70 (more than three decades). In general, 50 factors are classified into four dimensions: general self-esteem, peer-based social self-esteem, family-based self-esteem, and educational self-esteem (school). The final score can be between 0 and 100 points. The test result correlates positively with self-esteem. Participants with scores above 41 have strong self-esteem, while those with values below 22 have low self-esteem (Edgar et al., 1974).

Ethical considerations

All procedures performed in this study involved human participants and were in accordance with the ethical standards of the ethical review committee. We received the informed consent of parents and children and assured the participants about the confidentiality of the data.

Procedure

Seven schools from different areas of Kerala were selected for the study. The school principals were contacted to obtain preliminary approval for their school’s participation in the study. After receiving formal consent from the schools, we were provided access to class teachers by the school principals. Data were collected using a Google form with four sections containing items such as (a) informed consent of participants and parents, (b) demographic information, (b) the CEDV Scale, and (c) the Cooper Smith Self-esteem Scale, which was administered to all adolescents via a WhatsApp group of each class under the supervision of the teachers. Confidential treatment of information was assured to participants. All the participants completed the CEDV and self-esteem questionnaires. Data collected were double-checked for accuracy when assembled in the proper format for data analysis. Multiple regression and t-tests for independent samples were used to test the first and second hypotheses.

Results

Descriptive Table 1 shows that of the 214 participants, 118 (55.1%) were within the age range of 10–13 years and 96 (44.9%) were within the range of 14–17 years. Eighty-two (38.3%) participants were males and 132 (61.7%) were females. In terms of education level, 112 (52.3%) participants were in 5th to 9th grade, while 102 (47.7%) participants were in 10th to 12th grade. Parents’ education level indicates that 113 (52.8%) were less educated and 101 (47.2%) were highly educated. Occupation level shows that most of them were in the agriculture field (78 (36.4%)), followed by business (52 (24.3%)), government (19 (8.9%)), private (40 (18.7%)), and laborer (25 (11.7%)). The family monthly income revealed that 102 (47.7%) were in the low-income group, 85 (39.7%) were in the middle-income group, and 27 (12.6%) were in the high-income group. Occupational status shows the highest mean score of 2.448 (1.43), and age shows the lowest mean score of 1.448 (0.498).

Table 1.

Demographic characteristics, and mean and standard deviation of the participants.

Variable N %
Age
 10–13 118 55.1
 14–17 96 44.9
Gender
 Male 82 38.3
 Female 132 61.7
Participants’ education
 5–9 112 52.3
 10–12 102 47.7
Parents’ education
 Less educated 113 52.8
 Educated (graduation or above) 101 47.2
Occupation
 Agriculture 78 36.4
 Business 52 24.3
 Government 19 8.9
 Private 40 18.7
 Laborer 25 11.7
Family income
 Low income 102 47.7
 Middle income 85 39.7
 High income 27 12.6
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Table 2 shows the independent prediction of each variable in the study. The result indicates that parents’ education (t = 2.955, p < 0.05), occupation (t = 2.891, p < 0.05), and family income (t = 2.890, p < 0.05) significantly independently predicted self-esteem among adolescents, while age, gender, and participants’ education were not a significant predictor.

Table 2.

Regression analysis showing the independent prediction of the demographic variable on self-esteem.

Beta t-value Sig.
Variables
Age –0.060 –0.963 0.337
Gender –0.038 –0.598 0.551
Participants’ education –0.042 –0.673 0.502
Parents’ education 0.200 2.955 0.003
Occupation 0.200 2.891 0.004
Family income 0.206 2.890 0.004
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p > 0.05.

The stepwise selection version of linear regression, shown in Table 3, demonstrates that just three of the demographic variables examined—parents’ educational attainment, employment status, and family income—significantly and jointly predict adolescents’ self-esteem (R2 = 0.194, p < 05).

Table 3.

Regression analysis showing the joint prediction of the demographic variable on self-esteem.

Variables R R 2 Adjusted R2 F
Parents’ education 0.441 0.194 0.183 16.883
Occupation
Family income
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p < 0.05.

Table 4 shows that children’s exposure to IPV (CEDV) predicts self-esteem among adolescents given the overall coefficient of determination (R2) value of 0.44. Therefore, exposure to IPV accounted for 0.440 of the variance in self-esteem among adolescents.

Table 4.

Regression analysis indicating the predictive power of children’s exposure to intimate partner violence on self-esteem.

Variable Beta t-value Sig. R R 2 F p
CEDV –1.173 –5.349 0.000 0.663 0.440 32.688 <0.05
Violence –1.116 –5.355 0.000
Community exposure 1.251 2.779 0.006
Involvement –1.530 –3.011 0.003
Risk factors –0.458 –0.821 0.412
Other victimization –0.600 –0.985 0.326
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CEDV: Children’s exposure to domestic violence.

Table 5 shows that adolescents exposed to parental IPV reported low self-esteem (t = 8.50, p < 0.05). From the table, adolescents with low self-esteem had a mean score of 43.32 (13.36) on exposure to IPV, while adolescents with high self-esteem had a mean score of 28.99 (11.12).

Table 5.

Summary table of t-test for independent measures showing a comparison of self-esteem with CEDV.

Self-esteem N Mean SD df t-value
CEDV Low 110 43.32 13.36 212 8.50
High 104 28.99 11.12
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CEDV: Child Exposure to Domestic Violence.

p < .05.

Discussion

Families experienced various degrees of socioeconomic difficulty due to the COVID-19 crisis and its effects. The COVID-19 dilemma will not affect all families equally. Still, it could be especially harmful to adolescents whose parents are of low income and less educated because these children already have worse academic and social-emotional skills than their high-income or more educated peers (Attanasio et al., 2020). The influencing factors of self-esteem among adolescents vary from one country to another. The presence of the pandemic is an added factor to these variations. Therefore, the study’s main goal was to determine how IPV exposure and demographic factors related to adolescents’ self-esteem during COVID-19. The results revealed that demographic factors such as parents’ education, occupation, and family income significantly influence self-esteem. In contrast, age, gender, and participants’ education did not significantly predict self-esteem. The study also found that exposure to IPV significantly predicts self-esteem in adolescents in India. This result means that exposure to IPV causes low self-esteem in adolescents. Principles from attachment theory may help to support this explanation (Bowlby, 1969): “child develops a sense of self-worth out of the relationship with the primary caregiver, which then exerts an on-going influence on his mental health throughout development.” The finding is consistent with that of Bala (2010) who claimed that domestic violence had a negative impact on children’s self-esteem. According to another study, those who experienced IPV reported considerably poorer self-esteem than those who did (Shen, 2009). The findings are also consistent with those of Cameranesi and Piotrowski (2018), who reported that exposure to IPV is highly correlated with low self-esteem.

Regarding demographic variables, the present findings support that of Shanmugam and Kathyayini (2017). Hence, this study revealed that self-esteem was not significantly correlated with adolescent age. Other studies also report that self-esteem is not related to age (Azar et al., 2010; El-Sheikh et al., 2021). Concerning gender, the present finding supports Egwurugwu et al.’s (2017) and Tajeddini’s (2014) findings; they found no significant differences between boys and girls concerning self-esteem. Other investigators have also found a positive correlation between self-esteem and family income (Azar et al., 2010; Trzesniewski et al., 2006). Damota (2019) reports that self-esteem is negatively correlated with parents’ educational background. This study states that self-esteem is higher than those of students from educated families.

In addition, in India Dhanalakshmi and Muthumari (2019) examined the impact of Tai Chi on adolescents’ self-esteem levels and found significant changes depending on the occupations of adolescents’ mothers and fathers. On the other hand, one study discovered a weak and unfavorable relationship between socioeconomic status, parental education, occupation, and adolescents’ self-esteem (El-Sheikh et al., 2021). However, a recent study reveals that employment and socioeconomic status significantly predicted self-esteem in adults during COVID-19. Although the findings of our study may be compared to those of other studies, we discovered that adolescents’ self-esteem is influenced by demographic factors, which is consistent with this body of research. Such findings emphasize the significance of demographic factors. These findings could be explained by the widespread effects of the COVID-19 epidemic on families, which result in unemployment and low income as well as worsened mental health in both parents and children (Chen et al., 2022; Wang et al., 2021)

Conclusion, implication, and limitations

The findings show that demographic characteristics such as age, gender, and participants’ education did not significantly independently contribute to adolescents’ self-esteem. Still, the demographic factors of parents’ education, occupation, and family income had predictive power over adolescents’ self-esteem. Furthermore, the study’s findings elucidate that exposure to IPV predicts low self-esteem in adolescents. High exposure was reported to be low self-esteem in India during COVID-19. Therefore, this result can be a benefit for using psychological counseling and also a good background for therapists to understand the effective solution for enhancing self-esteem in adolescents in India.

Despite the relevance of this study, it is essential to recognize its limitations. The study only considered demographic factors and exposure to IPV as influencing factors of self-esteem in adolescents in India during COVID-19, and other factors also needed attention. Another limitation is that the study sample size was 214 adolescents from different areas of Kerala, hindering a broader generalization.

This study recommended that the issue of exposure to IPV among adolescents and their self-esteem has not yet been given much importance during the COVID-19 pandemic. Therefore, school authorities and government should take the initiatives to support these vulnerable children. These findings should be expanded upon in future research, and prevention and intervention strategies that help promote mental health by boosting self-esteem should be suggested. School-based online interventions, seminars, and workshops are needed to protect these future generations.

Author biographies

Jolly Manyathukudy Louis is a Ph.D. research student at the University of Santo Tomas and working as a family and school counselor.

Marc Eric S. Reyes, Ph.D., RPm, RPsy, is a Full Professor at the Psychology Department, UST College of Science. He is the Immediate Past President of the Psychological Association of the Philippines and currently a Board of Trustee of The Philippine Mental Health Association.

Footnotes

Consent to participate: Each participant in this study gave their informed consent before voluntary participation. In addition, participants were briefed about the nature of the study and assured that all data collected will be kept confidential, and that participation was purely voluntary without remuneration.

Funding: The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Ethical approval: All procedures performed in this study involved human participants and were in accordance with the ethical standards of the Manila Med Ethical Review Board, Manila

ORCID iD: Jolly Manyathukudy Louis Inline graphichttps://orcid.org/0000-0001-6494-3858

Contributor Information

Jolly Manyathukudy Louis, The Graduate School, University of Santo Tomas, Philippines.

Marc Eric S. Reyes, The Graduate School, University of Santo Tomas, Philippines; Psychology Department College of Science, University of Santo Tomas, Philippines

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