Abstract
Summary
The role of neuroimmunomodulation in allergic diseases is a research hotspot in recent years. Allergic rhinitis(AR) is caused by overactive immune response to a foreign antigen in nasal mucosa. Immune cells release inflammatory mediators(including histamine, cytokines and neurotrophins), which directly activate peripheral neurons to mediate nasal congestion, itching, sneezing, and other hyperresponsive symptoms. Upon activation, these peripheral neurons release neurotransmitters (including acetylcholine and norepinephrine) and neuropeptides(including calcitonin gene-related peptide, substance P and vasoactive intestinal peptide) that directly act on immune cells to drive allergic inflammation. Neuro-immune signaling may play a significant role in the pathophysiology of AR. Therefore, a better understanding of these cellular and molecular neuro-immune interactions may inspire the discovery of new targets and novel therapies.
Keywords: rhinitis, allergic; neuroimmunomodulation; neuropeptides; nasal hyperresponsiveness
变应性鼻炎(allergic rhinitis,AR)是一种由特应性个体接触了变应原后在鼻黏膜发生的主要由特异性免疫球蛋白E(immunoglobulin E,IgE)介导的非感染性炎症,可引发阵发性打喷嚏、流清涕、鼻塞和鼻痒等症状。AR已然成为一个全球性的健康问题,常常导致患者生活质量的严重下降。Yorgancioǧlu等(2008)的流行病学研究表明,在过去的几十年里,AR的患病率在全球范围内逐渐上升,影响到高达40%的人口。一项为期6年的中国成人自报AR的调查报告显示,成人AR患病率从2005年的11.1%上升到2011年的17.6%[1]。尽管药物治疗、免疫治疗等能在一定程度上控制AR,但是目前仍没有一种能完全根治AR的方法,根本原因是其发病机制尚未阐明。
多种免疫细胞和炎性介质参与AR的速发相和迟发相反应,包括肥大细胞(mast cells,MCs)激活和募集的自我放大机制,以及MCs炎性介质对变态反应二级效应细胞的影响等。但是随着研究的深入,我们发现单纯的免疫学说不能完全解释AR的发生发展。除了2型炎症,非特异性刺激引起的鼻黏膜高反应性也是AR的显著特征之一,它在一定程度上是由神经系统调控的。在临床实践中,单侧翼管神经切断术治疗AR也能获得较满意的效果[2]。所以近年来,神经元在AR中的调节作用越来越受到重视[3-6],而神经递质和免疫介质的旁分泌信号使得周围神经系统和免疫细胞之间的交流成为可能。神经系统和免疫系统的相互作用可能共同引发并加重AR的症状。本文就AR速发相和迟发相中的神经免疫调节网络加以综述(图 1)。
图 1.
AR的神经免疫调节机制
1. 速发相反应的神经免疫调节
暴露于变应原几分钟后,致敏个体就会出现速发相反应。MCs和嗜碱粒细胞在这一阶段发挥主导作用。
1.1. MCs与周围神经的相互作用
MCs在AR中是关键的效应细胞[7]。当抗原与高亲和力IgE交联后,MCs被激活并脱颗粒,释放出生物活性物质,包括组胺、前列腺素、白三烯、神经生长因子(nerve growth factor,NGF)和各种特异性蛋白酶,如类胰蛋白酶和糜蛋白酶。上述炎性介质可以诱发打喷嚏、鼻痒和流清涕等AR主要症状。同时,部分症状可能是感觉神经系统调控的。MacQueen等(1989)发现MCs在神经末梢附近分布,可能构成一个功能性的稳态调节单位。鼻黏膜的MCs表达神经肽受体,包括神经激肽受体1(neurokinin-1 receptor,NK-1R)、神经激肽受体2(neurokinin-2 receptor,NK-2R)和降钙素基因相关肽受体(calcitonin gene-related peptide receptor,CGRPR)。在AR中可观察到NK-1R和NK-2R表达增加[3]。虽然AR患者鼻黏膜MCs和神经纤维的数量与对照组相比无显著差异,但是两者之间的共定位明显增加[3],这也提示了MCs和神经元之间的双向交流在AR发生发展中的重要性。
当位于神经元细胞膜上的瞬时受体电位离子通道A1(transient receptor potential ankyrin 1)和V1(transient receptor potential vanilloid 1,TRPV1)被非特异性刺激(如辣椒素)或是炎性介质(如组胺、NGF)激活时,传入神经纤维释放各种神经肽,如P物质(substance P,SP)和降钙素基因相关肽(calcitonin gene-related peptide,CGRP),从而引发鼻部症状。SP是一种神经肽类神经递质,属于速激肽家族,可由鼻黏膜中的C神经纤维释放。SP刺激鼻黏膜可诱导组胺释放,从而影响鼻部的病理生理过程,这一作用在变态反应性炎症中尤为明显。变应原刺激感觉神经纤维可能导致SP的释放,而内源性SP在抗原介导的MCs脱颗粒中起重要作用[8-9]。研究表明鼻黏膜在IgE激活的条件下,内源性SP的mRNA和蛋白表达显著增加,shRNA介导的SP敲除可降低MCs脱颗粒的能力[10]。SP对MCs的作用可能是通过两条途径介导的。其一,SP与MCs上NK-1R的结合能促进各种炎性介质以非IgE方式释放[11],从而募集炎性细胞,引发固有免疫应答。鼻黏膜上皮中的孤立性化学感应细胞(solitary chemosensory cells,SCCs)受外界刺激后,通过乙酰胆碱(acetylcholine,Ach)触发肽能三叉神经,其释放的SP与MCs的NK-1R相结合,诱发下游炎症反应。SP/NK-1R是SCCs介导的炎症所必需的一环[12],抑制NK-1R的表达也可减轻AR相关的临床症状和鼻黏膜组织中的嗜酸粒细胞炎症[13]。其二,表达类胰蛋白酶和糜酶的MCs(tryptase and chymase-expressing mast cells,MCTC)表面存在MAS相关G蛋白偶联受体X2(Mas-related G-protein coupled receptor X2,MRGPRX2),SP结合MRGPRX2促进G蛋白依赖的MCs脱颗粒[14]。Tatemoto等(2006)首次证明MRGPRX2在MCTC中表达,并发现SP和血管活性肠肽(vasoactive intestinal peptide,VIP)通过该受体激活MCs。此外,shRNA介导的MRGPRX2表达下调可显著抑制SP诱导的MCs脱颗粒和前列腺素D2(prostaglandin D2,PGD2)的生成,提示这种G蛋白偶联受体参与了神经源性炎症的发展[15]。
除了SP升高,Mosimann等(1993)报道了AR患者鼻黏膜中CGRP的表达同样增加,这与AR患者的外周血和致敏大鼠的鼻黏膜中的发现一致[16]。CGRP的受体CGRPR被发现主要定位于MCs[3],所以CGRP可能作为一种神经递质使得神经元参与AR中免疫细胞的调节。此外,在小鼠AR模型中,胃泌素释放肽(gastrin-releasing peptide,GRP)和其受体(gastrin-releasing peptide receptor,GRPR)在鼻黏膜中表达也增高,并且MCs常与GRPR共定位。GRP可能与MCs上的GRPR结合,刺激其脱颗粒。研究表明,GRPR拮抗剂给药后20 min内抑制了组胺引起的打喷嚏[17]。
同时,MCs也通过其分泌的介质影响神经元的功能[18]。人鼻黏膜中存在MC受体阳性的神经纤维,其中包括蛋白酶激活受体2(protease activated receptor 2,PAR2)、原肌球蛋白受体激酶A(tropomyosin receptor kinase A,TrkA)、组胺受体[3, 18]。MCs释放的介质,如组胺,可引起传入神经元释放神经肽,进而刺激MCs释放其内容物。Sakaguchi等(2007)在致敏豚鼠中首次发现,使用CGRP-1受体拮抗剂可显著改善组胺诱导的晚期鼻塞,这提示了组胺可直接或间接地促进神经元释放CGRP舒张血管,从而引发鼻塞症状。Taylor-Clark等(2008)报道了白三烯D4也可与感觉神经元上的半胱氨酰白三烯受体1相互作用,从而引起神经肽的释放。其他介质如缓激肽可通过抑制神经元超极化和增加神经元离子通道(如TRPV1)的磷酸化等方式使感觉神经末梢增敏[19]。MCs释放的PGD2可以与神经末梢的PGD2受体1相结合,通过PKA信号通路降低神经元的动作电位阈值来调节不同刺激(如组胺)诱导的神经元兴奋,导致豚鼠组胺诱导的鼻炎症状增强[20]。此外,从MCs释放的类胰蛋白酶可裂解并激活初级传入神经元上的PAR2,从而促进Ca2+内流,导致CGRP和SP等神经肽的释放[21]。感觉神经末梢释放SP等神经肽和激活的MCs形成一个正反馈机制。
MCs可以分泌NGF这种强有力的生长因子,它调节表达高亲和力TrkA的感觉神经细胞的生长和存活,同时NGF与TrkA在神经末梢的相互作用可以增强神经可塑性,使神经对伤害性刺激作出更强烈的反应。这种神经可塑性可能导致“超敏”状态[22],因为NGF-TrkA受体复合物被内化并转运回胞体参与转录的调节[23]。NGF的另一受体p75神经营养素受体(p75 neurotrophin receptor,p75NTR)在周围神经也有表达,尽管在鼻变应原激发试验前后AR组和对照组的p75NTR表达水平无明显变化[24]。当鼻黏膜受到变应原攻击时,NGF会迅速释放,这一点可被AR患者鼻分泌物和外周血中NGF的增加所证实[25]。研究发现AR患者鼻活检标本中类胰蛋白酶阳性的MCs(tryptase-expressing mast cells)数量显著增加了30倍,其中约60%的MCs表达NGF,明显超过健康志愿者[26]。从鼻MCs释放的NGF可能还会增加轴突的出芽、调节神经肽的表达、激活离子通道(如TRPV1)、调节包括电压门控性钠通道在内的离子通道[27-30]。变应原刺激鼻黏膜后24 h,另一种神经因子——脑源性神经营养因子(brain-derived neurotrophic factor,BDNF)表达上调,且其表达增加量与AR鼻部症状总分最大增加值呈正相关[24],提示BDNF可能也参与了AR的发生发展。
总之,MC与神经的相互作用可能是通过神经纤维释放的神经肽(SP、CGRP、GRP)和MCs释放的介质(组胺、半胱氨酰白三烯、PGD2、蛋白酶和NGF)通过旁分泌信号发生的。
1.2. 嗜碱粒细胞与周围神经的相互作用
嗜碱粒细胞表达高亲和力IgE受体,这使得它能够在变应原暴露后迅速激活,并分泌组胺、白三烯、IL-4和IL-13等炎性介质,在2型炎症发生发展中发挥独特作用。上述介质的释放和嗜碱粒细胞中CD63和CD203c的表达有关[31]。嗜碱粒细胞的功能同时受各种免疫炎性因子和神经递质的调节,Raap等(2008)和Gibbs等(2005)分别报道了肾上腺素和NGF能抑制IgE介导的嗜碱粒细胞释放组胺。此外,研究表明人类嗜碱粒细胞表达黑素皮质素受体1(melanocortin 1 receptor,MC1R),并可通过p38、ERK1/2和JAK/STAT等MAPK通路对外周神经释放的α促黑素细胞激素(α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone,α-MSH)产生反应[32-33]。两者结合能够抑制CD63表达、削弱IL-4、IL-13等促炎因子释放,减少IgE与受体的交联[34]。此外在AR小鼠模型和患者中,α-MSH也可抑制抗IgE抗体和草花粉诱导的CD203c的上调[35]。由于α-MSH通过MC1R抑制人嗜碱粒细胞的促炎功能,将来其可能成为调节2型炎症反应的一个新靶点。
2. 迟发相反应的神经免疫调节
迟发相反应通常在接触变应原后2~6 h出现,其特征是打喷嚏时间延长、持续的流清涕和鼻塞。MCs释放新合成的细胞因子、趋化因子和生长因子参与后期反应。MCs通过产生白三烯、IL-5、IL-8和肿瘤坏死因子α等促进炎性白细胞[中性粒细胞、嗜酸粒细胞(eosinophils,EOS)和T细胞]的募集和活化,从而启动下游级联效应。在迟发相反应中,我们主要讨论EOS和2型固有淋巴细胞(group 2 innate lymphoid cells,ILC2s)与周围神经的双向作用。
2.1. EOS与周围神经的相互作用
EOS的大量募集是AR迟发反应的标志,其释放的主要碱性蛋白(major basic protein,MBP)可导致上皮细胞损伤。近年的研究发现Th2细胞趋化因子受体同源分子(chemoattractant receptor-homologous molecule expressed on Th2 cells,CRTH2)基因在人类EOS中表达,并仅在变应原激发后8 h的迟发反应中上调[36],所以CRTH2在AR中的作用越来越受到重视。PGD2和VIP是迄今为止发现的CRTH2配体,二者可能通过改变EOS的酪氨酸激酶或磷酸酶活性,从而调节CRTH2的表达。其中,VIP是一种神经肽,主要由副交感神经纤维分泌。VIP可激活人EOS上表达的CRTH2,并且可诱导CRTH2蛋白合成及表达,参与EOS的大量募集,从而阻断CRTH2,减轻患者的过敏症状[37]。AR患者的鼻黏膜可观察到EOS、VIP阳性神经纤维和VIP受体均明显增多,这也提示了VIP在AR神经源性炎症中的调节作用[38]。除VIP之外,SP也被报道与EOS的募集有关[39]。SP可诱导EOS从黏膜下层穿过上皮屏障进入鼻腔,具体机制可能是SP直接作用于EOS,如增加EOS黏附分子的表达;也可能是间接效应,如促进对EOS具有趋化活性的次级介质的释放和内皮细胞黏附分子的表达。
在AR的迟发反应中,鼻黏膜周围神经表达的血管细胞黏附分子1(vascular cell adhesion molecule-1)和CC趋化因子配体26(CC-chemokine ligand 26)可促进EOS进一步募集在神经周围。Wu等(2006)发现这些黏膜局部的EOS可能分泌NGF作用于神经元,导致气道神经高反应性。此外,EOS产生的细胞因子如IL-5、嗜酸粒细胞阳离子蛋白质和神经毒素也能直接或间接诱导鼻部神经高反应性。这些蛋白质能够对气道上皮造成严重损害,导致中性内肽酶的产生中断,并暴露局部神经纤维。因此神经纤维分泌的神经肽不被降解,从而延长炎症反应过程[40]。上述因素可能共同导致了鼻高反应性。
在气道炎症中可观察到EOS-胆碱能神经的相互作用[7]。EOS脱颗粒导致MBP和嗜酸粒细胞过氧化物酶(eosinophil peroxidase,EPO)等介质的释放。MBP、EPO与神经元的结合可上调胆碱乙酰转移酶和囊泡乙酰胆碱转运体蛋白基因的表达,并拮抗毒蕈碱M2受体(muscarinic M2),从而促进Ach的释放[41-42]。近年来,EOS对胆碱能神经的调节作用越来越明显,并可能参与过敏的病理生理过程,如黏液产生的增加。然而,ACh对EOS可能存在抗炎作用。Blanchet等(2007)报道了在体外应用烟碱受体激动剂二甲基苯基哌嗪碘化物(dimethylphenylpiperazinium Iodide,DMPP)刺激EOS,可下调其功能。DMPP抑制白三烯C4(leukotriene C4)的产生、EOS的迁移、基质金属蛋白酶9(matrix Metalloproteinase 9)的产生和细胞内钙的动员。
总之,EOS与神经的相互作用可能是通过神经元释放的神经递质(VIP、SP、Ach、NGF)和EOS释放的介质(NGF、MBP、EPO等)发生的,从而导致EOS的募集和神经高反应性。
2.2. ILC2s与周围神经的相互作用
ILC2s及其分泌的2型细胞因子被认为在诱导AR中发挥着重要作用。在AR患者的鼻黏膜中,ILC2的数量明显增加。ILC2产生的2型细胞因子可通过激活EOS、MCs、B细胞等来启动和扩大气道炎症反应[43]。ILC2s至少需要三个主要的信号来充分激活并产生2型细胞因子[44]。其中神经介素U(neuromedin U,NMU)促进ILC2产生IL-4是ILC2激活的一条重要通路,而IL-4又可促进B细胞产生IgE来加重2型炎症[45]。神经介素U受体1(neuromedin U receptor 1,NMUR1)存在于小鼠和人的ILC2的表面。小鼠体内实验表明,NMU介导的反应是通过MAPK和NFAT通路实现的[46]。
此外,ILC2s上还存在其他神经肽受体,包括VIP受体和CGRPR。CGRP可能在ILC2介导的2型炎症反应中起协同作用。在IL-25或IL-33存在的情况下,CGRP可以显著促进小鼠ILC2产生IL-5[47],而IL-5可导致MCs和EOS的募集和活化。与CGRP不同,VIP是ILC2的直接激活剂,也可促进IL-5的产生[48]。但是CGRP和VIP在人类ILC2中的作用均未见报道。最近的研究表明,ILC2也表达肾上腺素能β2受体(β2-adrenergic receptors,β2-AR)。去甲肾上腺素(norepinephrine,NE)是ILC2的负调节因子,可激活腺苷酸环化酶/cAMP通路导致ILC2活性和增殖能力降低,给予β2-AR激动剂沙美特罗则可抑制ILC2介导的小鼠气道2型炎症[49]。
遗憾的是,还没有研究报道ILC2对鼻黏膜外周神经元的影响。总之,ILC2s上存在神经肽受体(NMUR1、VIP受体和CGRPR)和β2-AR,可与相应的神经递质结合并产生下游效应。其中,NMU/NMUR1/ILC2轴是外周神经元和ILC2之间的关键纽带,可能导致并加重2型炎症。
3. 总结
神经免疫相互作用丰富了AR的发病机制,神经源性炎症成为AR经典免疫机制的重要补充。免疫系统通过细胞因子、组胺、NGF等炎性介质直接或间接触发外周神经元激活。这种免疫-神经交流参与了鼻黏膜高反应性(如鼻塞、打喷嚏、鼻痒等症状)的发生。而神经系统,包括感觉神经、交感神经、副交感神经,通过释放神经肽(SP、CGRP、VIP等)和神经递质(Ach、NE),与免疫细胞直接通信,从而调控2型炎症的发展。神经免疫调节机制为寻找新的AR治疗靶点带来了希望,是将来极具潜力的研究方向。
Funding Statement
国家自然科学基金重点项目(No:81630023);国家自然科学基金面上项目(No:81970850,81870698,81470678);国家自然科学基金青年项目(No:81400444);北京市科技计划课题(No:Z181100001618002);北京市东城区优秀人才(No:2020-dchrcpyzz-31)
References
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