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Roles of autophagy in cancer cells resistant to immunotherapy. Besides the activation of cytoprotective autophagy, cancer cells’ acquired immunotherapy resistance inhibits degradatory autophagy, thus increasing the amount of surface PD-L1 to interfere with the efficacy of immunotherapy. (HMGB1 = high mobility group box 1; PD-1 = programmed cell death protein 1; PD-L1 = programmed death-ligand 1; S1R = Sigma 1 receptor).
