Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Springer Nature - PMC COVID-19 Collection logoLink to Springer Nature - PMC COVID-19 Collection
. 2023 May 3;5(1):5. doi: 10.1007/s42824-023-00077-7

Strength Properties of Recycled Waste Plastic and Quarry Dust as Substitute to Coarse Aggregates: an Experimental Methodology

Rohantha Rukshan Jayasinghe 1,✉, Gihan Prabuddhike Herath 1, Wasudha Prabodhani Abeyrathna 1, Manuja Promodya Hendawitharana 1,2, Champika Liyanage 3, Karl Williams 3, Rangika Umesh Halwatura 1
PMCID: PMC10155159

Abstract

Plastic waste disposal is a significant environmental concern due to its low degradability and management practices, especially in developing countries. Plastic recycling is considered the most effective disposal method, which minimizes environmental impacts. This paper discusses the use of poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), high-density polyethylene (HDPE), and polypropylene (PP) plastic as aggregates in the concrete industry by incorporating quarry dust as a base material. An experimental mix design series was carried out, followed by a deoxygenated heat treatment on each mixture for optimum bonding. Compressive strength, specific gravity and water absorption properties were then investigated in each mixture. Although the specific gravity of PET plastic was 30% lower than the natural aggregates, the specific gravity of PET plastic aggregates was higher than the HDPE or PP waste plastic aggregates. Therefore, the proposed method is ideal for low-strength concrete components.

Graphical Abstract

graphic file with name 42824_2023_77_Figa_HTML.jpg

Keywords: Coarse aggregates, Compressive strength, Plastic waste, Recycled aggregates, Sustainable concrete

Introduction

World plastic production has increased from 2to 380 million tons since the 1950s. If the current growth trends continue, global production of plastics is forecasted to reach 1100 million tons by 2050 (Amaral-Zettler et al. 2015). Packaging, building and construction sectors are the dominant users of primary plastics, responsible for half of the total global plastics (Nikiema and Asiedu 2022). Currently, 49% of plastic waste accumulates in landfills; 19% is combusted for energy recovery; only 9% is recycled; and 22% is for mismanaged or uncollected litter (Global Plastics Outlook 2022). Moreover, due to COVID-19, healthcare plastic products and plastic product usage have drastically increased, which further surpluses plastic waste accumulation (Jayasinghe et al. 2021; Tripathi et al. 2020; Jayasinghe 2022). This is becoming a critical case, especially in developing countries, due to the lack of standards and poor waste management practices (Ferronato and Torretta 2019). Also, due to its slow degradability, plastic poses a significant limitation on its recyclability and disposal methods. Therefore, many novel applications were introduced and implemented to manage plastics sustainably (Awoyera and Adesina 2020).

Recycling plastic waste will reduce the environmental impact and add value to the various applications of the circular economy. The use of plastic waste in the packaging industry has been broadly explored (Evode et al. 2021; Ncube et al. 2021). Plastic waste in the construction industry is still being researched extensively; although, the construction industry is found to be the ideal application to achieve its sustainability objectives and reduce its energy consumption.

The use of plastic waste as a replacement or partial replacement for raw materials in the construction industry is an area of increasing interest, with the potential to reduce waste and greenhouse gas emissions. However, the extent to which different plastic types have been studied for this application remains unclear. In this study, we conducted a cross-tabulation analysis using several vital keywords, including fine aggregates, coarse aggregates and flakes, in ScienceDirect and Google Scholar for the past 10 years. This analysis aimed to identify which plastic types have been studied more or less frequently, providing insights to guide future research efforts and to identify patterns or trends in the literature for a broader understanding of the field. Overall, our findings suggest that certain plastic types have been more extensively researched for use in construction applications than others (i.e. polypropylene (PP) and poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET) while low-density polyethylene (LDPE) was the least). These results can inform future research efforts and provide guidance on which plastic types are most promising for further exploration in this context (see Fig. 1). The previous studies have highlighted the drawbacks of using plastic waste directly in concrete, but the current study takes a different approach by integrating plastic waste with waste material to obtain the necessary surface roughness for the coarse aggregate. It is important to note that in low-strength concrete, the inter transition zone (ITZ) is the primary factor that contributes to the strength properties.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

Open in a new tab

Number of publications on plastic waste in construction (ScienceDirect and Google scholar 2002 -2022)

Aggregates are one of the most accessible components to substitute in the concrete mix design. Generally, fine and coarse aggregates are classified on their diameter. The most common fine aggregate in reinforced concrete is sand, and gravel is coarse. When considering the strength properties of a concrete mixture, coarse aggregate determines the final strength of the concrete. Due to the depletion of natural resources, an alternative solution should be considered for the construction industry.

This study investigated the physical properties produced by waste plastic aggregates and quarry dust. The comprehensive review of the previous studies revealed that plastic waste was added to the concrete as plastic flakes or pallets. It was ideal for low-strength concrete due to its lower strength parameters. As a substitute, this study aims to develop a coarse aggregate that incorporates quarry dust (a by-product of crushing natural aggregates) and plastic waste to replace or partially replace the natural aggregates in concrete. Accordingly, the plastic aggregates’ physical and mechanical properties were studied using several plastic waste types (i.e. HDPE, PP and PET plastics). Current applications and methods utilized for recycling plastic waste are shown in Table 1. This was developed using an in-depth literature review.

Table 1.

Methods of recycling -different plastic waste types in the construction industry

Used plastic type/s Application Type of substitution Methods References
PET Walling material Bricks PET bottles with filling materials (e.g., sand, mud, soil, or any waste materials) Raut et al. 2015; Mansour and Ali Feb. 2015; Raut. 2019; Haque and Islam 2021)
PET Concrete Fine aggregate Waste plastic granulate into fine powder Dawood et al. 2021; Bamigboye et al. 2021; Harihanandh and Karthik 2022; Kangavar et al. 2022; Sai Gopi et al. 2020)
Concrete Coarse aggregate Shredded PET plastic waste melted and chopped Bachtiar et al. 2020; Lee et al. 2019; Islam et al. 2016)
Mortar Fine aggregate Powdered PET mixed in cement paste Foti and Lerna 2020; Pereira De Oliveira and Castro-Gomes 2011; Benosman et al. 2013; Campanhão et al. 2022)
PP Waling material Bricks Melting and casting bricks Kulkarni et al. in preparation; Islam and Shahjalal 2021)
Concrete Fine aggregate Powdered waste plastic used as fine aggregates Harihanandh and Karthik 2022; Sai Gopi et al. 2020)
Concrete Coarse aggregate Melted and crushed into coarse aggregates Islam and Shahjalal 2021; Mohseni et al. 2017)
HDPE Waling material Bricks Melting and casting bricks Kulkarni et al. in preparation; Zhang 2017)
Concrete Fine aggregate Powdered waste plastic used as fine aggregates Almeshal et al. 2020; Punitha et al. 2021; Abeysinghe et al. 2021)
Concrete Coarse aggregate Crushed plastics are added to the mixture as coarse aggregates Punitha et al. 2021; Abeysinghe et al. 2021; Lopez et al. 2019)
Mortar Fine aggregate Powdered waste plastic mixed with cement paste Aocharoen and Chotickai 2021; Badache et al. 2018; Suwansaard et al. 2021; Thiam and Fall 2021)
Open in a new tab

Using plastic waste directly as coarse aggregates may result in low strength parameters due to its surface smoothness (Shiuly et al. 2022). This process focuses on achieving adequate surface roughness to the aggregates for better bonding properties. Also, the process uses only the quarry dust as base material. River sand would be ideal as a base material to achieve the surface roughness the aggregate required. However, quarry dust was selected as a substitution for the base material to minimize the environmental impact. Further studies should need to be conducted incorporating other base materials. Integrating industrial waste as a substitution for the base material would further reduce the carbon footprint.

Waste Plastics as a Binder

Shredded waste PET, HDPE and PP plastics were cleaned, categorised and collected from the plastic waste recycling centre, in Matale, Sri Lanka. The shredding was conducted at the centre using separate machines to avoid mixing any plastic types. The waste plastics were washed and dried for 24 h in the open air. Waste plastic particles that passed the 5-mm sieve size were taken for the mix design.

Quarry Dust as a Base Material

Quarry dust was acquired from a local construction material supplier. Quarry dust is a readily available construction material in Sri Lanka, since it has been used to replace sand in construction. For the mix design, quarry dust that passed through a 2.36-mm sieve was selected by ASTM D2487 standards.

Mix Design and Production Process

Sets of cubes were cast with different mixed proportions by combining each shredded plastic waste with quarry dust (see Table 2).

Table 2.

Mix proportions selected for the study

Plastic type Mix proportion Plastic type Mix proportion Plastic type Mix proportion
Plastic Quarry dust Plastic Quarry dust Plastic Quarry dust
PET 30% 70% HDPE - - PP - -
PET 40% 60% HDPE 40% 60% PP 40% 60%
PET 50% 50% HDPE 50% 50% PP 50% 50%
PET 60% 40% HDPE 60% 40% PP 60% 40%
Open in a new tab

The production process of plastic waste aggregates is illustrated in Fig. 2. Initially, selected plastic wastes are shredded into 5–10 mm and cleaned. Base material (quarry dust) is then mixed with shredded plastic waste. Each mixture was heated to its plastic melting point and kept heated for another 10 min. The melting points of PET, HDPE and PP were 260, 120 and 160 °C, respectively. The heating process was conducted without oxygen to omit the foul gas released from the mixing. The heated mixture was then poured into 75 mm × 75 mm × 75 mm moulds and allowed to cool and hardened. The hardened blocks were then crushed. The resulting aggregates were sorted using sieves, and fine and coarse aggregates were separated. Since the study only focused on coarse aggregates, the remaining fine aggregates were added and reused at the heating stage.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

Open in a new tab

Manufacturing process of the recycled plastic aggregates

Results and Discussion

Compressive Strength

The compressive strength of the samples was tested at two different temperatures, 30 and 50 °C. Each sample was soaked in a water bath incubator for 24 h before the testing. It was identified that, compared with other plastic types, PET plastic aggregates have a higher compressive strength than other plastic aggregates. Similar trends were also observed with reduced strengths at 50 °C temperature (see Fig. 3).

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

Open in a new tab

Compressive strength of plastic aggregates

Previous studies only focus on the strength parameters of concrete mixtures with recycled plastic aggregates (Malkapur et al. 2014; Basha et al. 2020). No proper studies were conducted only for testing recycling aggregate properties. Compressive strength is increasing with lesser waste plastic content. However, below 40% of mixtures for HDPE and PP were not possible to cast due to inconsistency, since the 40% PET plastic mixture strength is more than 18 kN/mm2, which can be ideal to use for lower grade concrete mixtures.

Specific Gravity and Water Absorption

Specific gravity and water absorption tests were carried out for recycled plastic aggregates according to the specifications. The specific gravity of PET plastics was comparatively higher than the HDPE and PP aggregates. This indicates that higher specific gravity occurs with lower plastic content in the mix design. Also, when considering the water absorption of plastic aggregates, PP has the highest water absorption rate compared to the HDPE and PET aggregates (see Table 3).

Table 3.

Summary of the physical properties test results

Plastic-type Mix proportion Compressive strength in kN/mm2 Specific gravity Water absorption %
Plastic Quarry dust 30 °C 50 °C
PET 60% 40% 14.44 14.17 1.41 2.83
PET 50% 50% 15.40 14.79 1.68 2.27
PET 40% 60% 18.70 17.65 1.80 1.77
PET 30% 70% 23.60 21.67 1.82 1.63
HDPE 60% 40% 11.90 11.16 1.27 2.38
HDPE 50% 50% 13.65 12.35 1.37 1.96
HDPE 40% 60% 17.90 16.52 1.44 1.69
HDPE 30% 70% - - - -
PP 60% 40% 11.51 11.08 1.24 2.76
PP 50% 50% 12.80 12.24 1.28 2.65
PP 40% 60% 17.12 14.52 1.40 2.35
PP 30% 70% - - - -
Open in a new tab

According to ASTM C127, water absorption of the aggregates should not exceed 3 or 2% in critical conditions (aggressive chloride or freeze–thaw exposure), and specific gravity is about 2.5–3.0 (ASTM 2001). Nevertheless, the recycled plastic aggregates have an acceptable water absorption ratio; compared with the natural aggregates; low strength parameters can be expected due to the low specific gravity.

Scanning Electron Microscopic Analysis

To observe the bonding of the mixture, 50/50 mix designs were further analysed using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) with an accelerating voltage of 10 kV (see Fig. 4).

Fig. 4.

Fig. 4

Open in a new tab

Scanning electron microscopic (SEM) analysis for a HDPE, b PET, and c PP plastic waste aggregates

According to the visual inspection, SEM analysis revealed that the PET plastic blend has homogenous crystallization with quarry dust, compared with the HDPE and PP mixtures, resulting in higher mechanical properties in the PET mixture.

Conclusion and Recommendation

It was identified that during the manufacturing process (heating and melting), foul gases are released, and PP plastic waste tends to get scorched easily, which may result in environmental, health and safety issues. To avoid this, heating was conducted without supplying oxygen to mitigate such effects. The specific gravity of PET plastic aggregates (which constituted 60% of the plastic waste mix) is higher than that of HDPE or PP waste plastic aggregates. However, the specific gravity of PET plastic was 30% lower than that of natural aggregates. Water absorption for natural aggregates ranges from 0.6 to 1.0%. However, water absorption varied between 1.69 and 2.83% for all the plastic aggregates. The water absorption capacity of the aggregates indicates the amount of water that can be absorbed. Therefore, this indicates that plastic waste aggregates have more surface area than natural aggregates, increasing workability. The inter transition zone (ITZ), the region between the surface of the aggregate particles and the cement paste, acts as the dominant factor that contributes to the strength properties, especially in the low-strength concrete mix design. Improving the surface roughness of the recycled aggregate was an essential consideration for the study.

Overall, while there are certainly some drawbacks to using plastic waste in concrete applications directly, there are potential benefits such as reduced carbon footprint, cost saving, environmental benefits and aesthetic appeal. Among these plastic waste types, it was identified that PET plastic has the potential to be used for recycled aggregates, compared with other types of plastics. Nevertheless, future research and development are needed to optimize the use of plastic waste in concrete to ensure that it is safe and effective for construction applications and to improve the surface roughness of recycled aggregates to enhance the strength properties of low-strength concrete.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to acknowledge the support given by the technical officer, Ms W. B. U. Rukma from the Department of Civil Engineering, University of Moratuwa.

Author Contribution

The authors RRR and GPH initiate the main research study and performed testing, and manuscript was written by RRR, WPA, and MPH, while CL, KW, and RUH critically reviewed all the versions of the manuscript.

Data availability

The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Declarations

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Footnotes

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

References

  1. Abeysinghe S, Gunasekara C, Bandara C, Nguyen K, Dissanayake R, Mendis P. Engineering performance of concrete incorporated with recycled high-density polyethylene (HDPE)— a systematic review. Polym. 2021;13(11):1885. doi: 10.3390/POLYM13111885. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Almeshal I, Tayeh BA, Alyousef R, Alabduljabbar H, Mustafa Mohamed A, Alaskar A. Use of recycled plastic as fine aggregate in cementitious composites: a review. Constr. Build. Mater. 2020;253:119146. doi: 10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2020.119146. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  3. Amaral-Zettler LA, et al. The biogeography of the Plastisphere: implications for policy. Front Ecol Environ. 2015;13(10):541–546. doi: 10.1890/150017. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  4. Aocharoen Y, Chotickai P. Compressive mechanical properties of cement mortar containing recycled high-density polyethylene aggregates: stress–strain relationship. Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 2021;15:e00752. doi: 10.1016/J.CSCM.2021.E00752. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  5. ASTM C127 Standard test method for specific gravity and water absorption of coarse aggregate. Am. Soc. Test. Mater. 2001;04(Reapproved):1–6. [Google Scholar]
  6. Awoyera PO, Adesina A. Plastic wastes to construction products: status, limitations and future perspective. Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 2020;12:e00330. doi: 10.1016/j.cscm.2020.e00330. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  7. Bachtiar E, Jumawan F, Artayani M, Junaedy Rahman M, Setiawan A, and Ihsan M (2020) Examining polyethylene terephthalate (PET) as artificial coarse aggregates in concrete. Civ Eng J 6 12 10.28991/cej-2020-03091626
  8. Badache A, Benosman AS, Senhadji Y, Mouli M. Thermo-physical and mechanical characteristics of sand-based lightweight composite mortars with recycled high-density polyethylene (HDPE) Constr Build Mater. 2018;163:40–52. doi: 10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2017.12.069. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  9. Bamigboye GO, Tarverdi K, Umoren A, Bassey DE, Okorie U, Adediran J. Evaluation of eco-friendly concrete having waste PET as fine aggregates. Clean. Mater. 2021;2:100026. doi: 10.1016/J.CLEMA.2021.100026. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  10. Basha SI, Ali MR, Al-Dulaijan SU, Maslehuddin M. Mechanical and thermal properties of lightweight recycled plastic aggregate concrete. J. Build. Eng. 2020;32:101710. doi: 10.1016/J.JOBE.2020.101710. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  11. Benosman AS, et al. Studies on chemical resistance of PET-mortar composites: microstructure and phase composition changes. Engineering. 2013;2013(04):359–378. doi: 10.4236/ENG.2013.54049. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  12. Campanhão AF, Marvila MT, de Azevedo ARG, da Silva TR, Fediuk R, Vatin N. Recycled PET sand for cementitious mortar. Mater. 2021;15(1):273. doi: 10.3390/MA15010273. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Dawood AO, AL-Khazraji H, Falih RS. Physical and mechanical properties of concrete containing PET wastes as a partial replacement for fine aggregates. Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 2021;14:e00482. doi: 10.1016/J.CSCM.2020.E00482. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  14. Evode N, Qamar SA, Bilal M, Barceló D, Iqbal HMN. Plastic waste and its management strategies for environmental sustainability. Case Stud. Chem. Environ. Eng. 2021;4:100142. doi: 10.1016/J.CSCEE.2021.100142. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  15. Ferronato N and Torretta V (2019) Waste mismanagement in developing countries: a review of global issues, Int. J. Environ. Res. Public Health, 16 6, 10.3390/IJERPH16061060 [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
  16. Foti D and Lerna M (2020) New mortar mixes with chemically depolymerized waste PET aggregates, Adv. Mater. Sci. Eng., 2020, 10.1155/2020/8424936.
  17. Global Plastics Outlook Glob Plast Outlook. 2022 doi: 10.1787/DE747AEF-EN. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  18. Haque MS, Islam S. Effectiveness of waste plastic bottles as construction material in Rohingya displacement camps. Clean. Eng. Technol. 2021;3:100110. doi: 10.1016/J.CLET.2021.100110. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  19. Harihanandh M, Karthik P. Feasibility study of recycled plastic waste as fine aggregates in concrete. Mater Today Proc. 2022;52:1807–1811. doi: 10.1016/J.MATPR.2021.11.459. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  20. Islam MJ, Shahjalal M. Effect of polypropylene plastic on concrete properties as a partial replacement of stone and brick aggregate. Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 2021;15:e00627. doi: 10.1016/J.CSCM.2021.E00627. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  21. Islam MJ, Meherier MS, Islam AKMR. Effects of waste PET as coarse aggregate on the fresh and harden properties of concrete. Constr Build Mater. 2016;125:946–951. doi: 10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2016.08.128. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  22. Jayasinghe RR, et al. Analysis of the community behavioural patterns in management of household plastic waste due to the COVID-19 pandemic in Sri Lanka. Case Stud Chem Environ Eng. 2022;6:100246. doi: 10.1016/J.CSCEE.2022.100246. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Jayasinghe RR, Lythgoe D, Liyanage C, Williams K, and Halwatura R (2021) Impact of Covid-related plastic waste -case of Sri Lanka [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
  24. Kangavar ME, Lokuge W, Manalo A, Karunasena W, Frigione M. Investigation on the properties of concrete with recycled polyethylene terephthalate (PET) granules as fine aggregate replacement. Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 2022;16:e00934. doi: 10.1016/J.CSCM.2022.E00934. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  25. Kulkarni P, Ravekar V, Rama Rao P, Waigokar S, Hingankar S. Recycling of waste HDPE and PP plastic in preparation of plastic brick and its mechanical properties. Clean. Mater. 2022;5:100113. doi: 10.1016/J.CLEMA.2022.100113. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  26. Lee ZH, Paul SC, Kong SY, Susilawati S, and Yang X (2019) Modification of waste aggregate PET for improving the concrete properties, Adv. Civ. Eng. 2019, 10.1155/2019/6942052.
  27. Lopez N, Collado E, Diacos LA, Morente HD. Evaluation of pervious concrete utilizing recycled HDPE as partial replacement of coarse aggregate with acrylic as additive. MATEC Web Conf. 2019;258:01018. doi: 10.1051/MATECCONF/201925801018. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  28. Malkapur SM, Anand A, Pandey AP, Ojha A, Mani N, Mattur NC. Effect of mix parameters on the strength performance of waste plastics incorporated concrete mixes. J Struct. 2014;2014:1–8. doi: 10.1155/2014/389014. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  29. Mansour AMH, Ali SA. Reusing waste plastic bottles as an alternative sustainable building material. Energy Sustain Dev. 2015;24:79–85. doi: 10.1016/J.ESD.2014.11.001. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  30. Mohseni E, Saadati R, Kordbacheh N, Parpinchi ZS, Tang W. Engineering and microstructural assessment of fibre-reinforced self-compacting concrete containing recycled coarse aggregate. J Clean Prod. 2017;168:605–613. doi: 10.1016/J.JCLEPRO.2017.09.070. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  31. Ncube LK, Ude AU, Ogunmuyiwa EN, Zulkifli R, Beas IN. An overview of plastic waste generation and management in food packaging industries. Recycl. 2021;6(1):12. doi: 10.3390/RECYCLING6010012. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  32. Nikiema J, Asiedu Z. A review of the cost and effectiveness of solutions to address plastic pollution. Environ Sci Pollut Res. 2022;29(17):24547–24573. doi: 10.1007/S11356-021-18038-5/TABLES/13. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  33. Pereira De Oliveira LA, Castro-Gomes JP. Physical and mechanical behaviour of recycled PET fibre reinforced mortar. Constr Build Mater. 2011;25(4):1712–1717. doi: 10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2010.11.044. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  34. Punitha V, Sakthieswaran N, Babu OG. Experimental investigation of concrete incorporating HDPE plastic waste and metakaolin. Mater. Today Proc. 2021;37(Part 2):1032–1035. doi: 10.1016/J.MATPR.2020.06.288. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  35. Raut A. Application of bottles as a sustainable material in building construction. SSRN Electron J. 2019 doi: 10.2139/SSRN.3379190. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  36. Raut A, Patel MS, Jadhwar NB, Khan U, Dhengare SW. Investigating the application of waste plastic bottle as a construction material: a review. J Adv Res Mech Civ Eng. 2015;2(3):73–83. doi: 10.53555/NNMCE.V2I3.362. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  37. Sai Gopi K, Srinivas DT, Raju SPV. Feasibility study of recycled plastic waste as fine aggregate in concrete. E3S Web Conf. 2020;184:01084. doi: 10.1051/E3SCONF/202018401084. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  38. Shiuly A, Hazra T, Sau D, Maji D. Performance and optimisation study of waste plastic aggregate based sustainable concrete – a machine learning approach. Clean. Waste Syst. 2022;2:100014. doi: 10.1016/J.CLWAS.2022.100014. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  39. Suwansaard A, Kongpun T, Khemkhao M. Properties of mortar composites from plastic waste. J Appl Sci Eng. 2021;25(1):59–70. doi: 10.6180/JASE.202202_25(1).0007. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  40. Thiam M, Fall M. Mechanical, physical and microstructural properties of a mortar with melted plastic waste binder. Constr. Build. Mater. 2021;302:124190. doi: 10.1016/J.CONBUILDMAT.2021.124190. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  41. Tripathi A, Tyagi VK, Vivekanand V, Bose P, Suthar S. Challenges, opportunities and progress in solid waste management during COVID-19 pandemic. Case Stud Chem Environ Eng. 2020;2:100060. doi: 10.1016/J.CSCEE.2020.100060. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Zhang P, et al. Compressive strength and initial water absorption rate for cement brick containing high-density polyethylene (HDPE) as a substitutional material for sand. IOP Conf. Ser. Mater. Sci. Eng. 2017;271(1):012083. doi: 10.1088/1757-899X/271/1/012083. [DOI] [Google Scholar]

Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Data Availability Statement

The datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

Articles from Materials Circular Economy are provided here courtesy of Nature Publishing Group

RESOURCES