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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2024 May 1.
Published in final edited form as: J Community Appl Soc Psychol. 2022 Nov 21;33(3):756–772. doi: 10.1002/casp.2665

Flourishing Communities: A new model to promote sustainable community leadership and transformation in semi-rural Kenya

Michael Goodman 1,+, Linda Theron 2, Sarah Seidel 3, Aleisha Elliott 1, Lauren Raimer-Goodman 1, Philip Keiser 1, Stanley Gitari 4, Christine Gatwiri 4
PMCID: PMC10195071  NIHMSID: NIHMS1848135  PMID: 37213894

Abstract

Communities often face numerous challenges and opportunities - situations that may be reduced to specific domains by researchers, policy makers and interventionists. This study informs and animate a new “flourishing community” model that seeks to build collective capacity to respond to challenges and opportunities. Our work is a response to children living on the streets, whose families face myriad challenges. The Sustainable Development Goals make explicit the need for new, integrative models that acknowledge the interplay of challenges and opportunities within communities through the flow of everyday life.

Flourishing communities are generative, supportive, resilient, compassionate, curious, responsive, self-determined, and build resources across economic, social, educational, and health domains. Integrating theoretical models - specifically, community-led development, multi-systemic resilience, and the “broaden and build” cycle of attachment - provide a testable framework to understand and explore hypothesized relationships between survey-collected, cross-sectional variables with 335 participants. Higher collective efficacy, a common byproduct of group-based microlending activities, was correlated with higher sociopolitical control. This correlation was mediated by higher positive emotion, meaning in life, spirituality, curiosity, and compassion. Further research is required to understand replicability, cross-sectoral impact, mechanisms of integrating health and development domains, and implementation challenges of the flourishing community model.

Please refer to the Supplementary Material section to find this article’s Community and Social Impact Statement.

Keywords: Community leadership, Empowerment, Collective Efficacy, Kenya, Positive psychology

Background:

The animating question behind this study is - how do we, outsiders to communities from whom children have migrated to Kenyan streets, support collective capacity to build resources that respond to their needs, desires, interests and dreams? Our hope is that the answer to this question leads to communities that are better able to care for their members, nurture all of their children, prevent the migration of children to the street, and support the reintegration of children to their home communities. A previous publication articulates the organizational structure and external practices supporting our approach (Goodman et al., 2021); this study articulates and provides empirical support for theorized social psychological mechanisms supporting our “flourishing communities” model. Our animating question parallels challenges within global health governance. Specifically, how do we, as a global community, support the integration and cultivation of myriad domains and promote global well-being at the community level?

The flourishing community model integrates insights from multiple theories and frameworks. The model emerges from action-reflection cycles with an on-going community program in Meru County, Kenya to build capacity to care for children at risk of, or returning from, life on the streets. Recognizing multiple factors contribute to street-migration of children (Goodman et al., 2017; Seidel et al., 2018), the on-going community program seeks to build family- and community-level capacity for self-determined growth. The community program is locally called “Kuja Pamoja kwa Jamii” (KPJ, “Come Together to Belong” in Swahili). The KPJ program informs the development of our broader “flourishing community” model, which we believe supports consideration and adaptability of the key insights to other contexts. The KPJ organizational structure has been published previously (Goodman et al., 2021).

First, we review three existing conceptual frameworks informing the flourishing communities model – community-led development, the broaden-and-build cycle of attachment security, and multilevel/multi-systemic resilience. Then, we review the flourishing communities model.

Community-led Development

Community-engaged development has long been a preferred method of optimizing benefits intended for marginalized communities (Mansuri & Rao, 2004). The shape of community-engaged development fluctuates from delivery of basic services closer to where marginalized communities live to efforts to empower marginalized communities to control their own development (Nel, 2018). Intended benefits risk being captured by local elites who, through informal networks and political backchannels, may intercept benefits intended to support the most marginalized people (Wahedussaman, As-Saber, & Hamid, 2018). To reduce elite capture while supporting the personal autonomy, development efforts continue shifting towards increasingly localized, decentralized, and participatory programming models (Baguios, Martins, & Pinnington, 2021). Further model development is required to support localized, decentralized, participatory programming fostering leadership of marginalized people to articulate, advocate for and realize their own goals. Models must build on previous awareness that (1) transfers of benefits may be captured by elites, (2) knowledge hierarchies perpetuate inequalities by dictating whose knowledge can inform resource distribution, (3) external priorities may not match community priorities, (4) socio-cultural contexts and relationships within and beyond intended beneficiaries must be honored, and (5) sustainable change requires community ownership and voluntary engagement (Baguios et al., 2021).

Community-led development gained traction from the early 2010s in response to largely single-sector, top-down interventions funded during the Millennium Development Goal era (Movement for Community-led Development, 2021a). Community-led development focuses on building the capacity of a community as a system rather than solely for a specific project. Community-led development creates the capacity to integrate multiple Sustainable Development Goals across sectors at the community-level as determined by communal priorities and capacities. Presently, community-led development provides less an implementation model than an implementation direction - an umbrella paradigm characterized by inclusion, voice, community assets, capacity development, sustainability, transformative capacity, collective planning and action, accountability, community leadership, adaptability and collaboration (MCLD, 2021b).

Sociopolitical control - leadership competence and policy influence - resonates with the objectives of community-led development (Zimmerman & Zahniser, 1991). Globally, higher sociopolitical control predicts participation in a social movements, political activism, and citizen engagement (Chan, Mak, Chan & Lin, 2021; Ohmer, 2007). The “flourishing communities” model provides a testable, quasi-linear model for community assessment and interventional design to support community-led development.

Multisystemic resilience

Integrating multiple sectors at the community-level is consistent with multisystemic resilience theory. Multisystemic resilience theory builds on decades of resilience research and characterizes the capacity for positive functioning after significant stress through structural, environmental, communal, psychosocial, interpersonal and intrapersonal factors (Masten et al., 2021; Yule, Houston, Grych, 2019; Theron, Murphy & Ungar, 2021; Ungar & Theron, 2020). Multisystem resilience theory forces recognition that capably responding to a threat in one sector – e.g. substance use among children living on the street - requires consideration of elements in other sectors – e.g. preventing intimate partner violence. Similarly, the “flourishing communities” model emerged from the awareness that childhood challenges reflect a variety of challenges across multiple systems and levels (Goodman et al., 2017; Seidel et al., 2018).

The flourishing communities model differs from multisystem resilience theory in two ways. First, the flourishing communities model recognizes individuals and communities face adversities but characterizes communities by their capacity to explore new, self-determined horizons without requiring reference to existing vulnerabilities. Flourishing communities collectively adapt to challenges they face, while pioneering their own growth in organic ways. Secondly, the flourishing communities model provides a broad, quasi-linear interventional approach for work with marginalized communities, rather than a cluster of essential, but unordered, co-acting variables. The quasi-linear order of variables within the flourishing communities model is informed by basic and applied research with research on the broaden-and-build cycle of attachment security (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2020).

Broaden-and-Build Cycle of Attachment Security

Research on the developmental benefits of positive emotion emerged two decades ago, largely under Fredrickson’s Broaden and Build theory (Fredrickson, 2004). Positive emotions broaden the mental frameworks people employ and support building resources to serve personal interests such as meeting economic, social, educational or health needs (Fredrickson, 2013). Secure attachments - confidence in the availability, capability, and responsiveness of caring social others – increase positive emotions and subsequently support individual’s capacity to broaden and build their resources (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2020).

Attachment research began with observing infant-caregiver dyads, and expanded to include other forms of connections within dyadic social relations – between intimate partners, friends, owners and pets, believing theists and God. (Gillath, Karantzas, & Selcuk, 2017; Cherniak, Mikulincer, Shaver & Granqvist, 2021; Fitton, 2013). Attachment dynamics depend on a mental script reflecting the degree of confidence in the availability, capability and responsiveness of social others (Waters & Waters, 2006). Collective efficacy is marked by the same script – the degree of confidence one has in the availability, capability and responsiveness of one’s communal environment. The main difference between collective efficacy and dyadic relations is the number of individuals involved in considering one’s social relations.

Meaning in life amongst Kenyans is associated with family relations, consistent with the broaden-and-build cycle of attachment security (Goodman et al., 2019). Social relationships may expand cognitive horizons, permitting the assessment of connections between elements of one’s lived experience and one’s role within this symbolic nexus – experienced as meaning in life.

Theoretical and empirical support for connections between social relations and spirituality also emerges from the “religion as attachment” framework of Granqvist and colleagues (2020). The “correspondence mechanism” of the “religion as attachment” framework posits connection with a divine being as a form of attachment security, reflecting human attachments. Positive emotions, which emanate from more secure social connections, may prompt individuals to broaden their cognitive horizons and build towards helpful resources and relationships – potentially including self-God relations. Divine attachments may provide a context to consider one’s engagement with worldly matters and build towards what is helpful (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2020).

Spirituality, above and beyond religious observance, increases compassion and altruistic behavior (Saslow et al., 2013). Social curiosity and compassion move people beyond themselves and towards others with interest and concern (Renner, 2006; Estrada et al., 2021). Curiosity and compassion predict higher academic and employee engagement (Estrada et al., 2021; Nazir & Islam, 2020; Garrosa et al., 2017).

Due to the way in which meaning in life and spirituality provide broader, integrative perspectives on the larger world, we consider these as “broaden” constructs within the broaden-and-build cycle of attachment security. We consider social curiosity and compassion as “build” constructs of broaden-and-build cycle of attachment security.

The flourishing communities model hypothesizes positive emotions emerge from improved social connections amongst community members, increasing meaning in life, spirituality, curiosity, and compassion. Group-based microfinance programs, including savings- and internal-lending groups, increase collective efficacy (Brody et al., 2017). Globally, over 150 million of the world’s poorest people participate in some financial self-help group and over 11 million people participate in savings- and internal-lending groups (Goodman et al., 2021). Understanding the developmental implications of such groups can provide a path to supporting and scaling community-led development.

Flourishing Communities in Kenya

Over the previous 6 years, through iterative action-reflection cycles with community members and leaders, we have developed a “scaffolding” approach to increase community-led development across sectors associated with increased risk of street-migration among children (Mair, Wolf, & Seelos, 2016; Goodman et al., 2020).

The first stage promotes inclusion of socially and economically excluded persons, principally through linking caregivers of children identified from the street with other supporting families.

The second stage utilizes weekly group-based microlending meetings to increase collective efficacy. To support families whose children desire to return to living in the community from street situations, and others who may find themselves at similar risk, families are invited to form groups of 25–30 members to meet weekly and participate in a savings- and internal-lending group. While the initial “focal family” is identified and actively recruited to join the program by intervention staff, all subsequent participants join based on word of mouth recruitment. Across 25 villages, the total weekly number of participants has grown to over 8,000 families. To mitigate the risk of poor group leadership, and provide participants the opportunity to practice leadership, each group member takes a turn facilitating group meetings and KPJ groups do not have permanent leadership roles (Hermes & Lensink, 2007).

The third scaffolding stage utilizes improved social relations to reduce depression, trauma and conflict, and increase positive emotion and community leadership to create change across a variety of domains – co- determined by program implementers, funders and participants. Data for this present study were collected at baseline of a cluster-randomized trial of a novel 6-month positive psychology-based curriculum (“Pathways to Flourishing”). The Pathways to Flourishing curriculum aims to increase positive emotion, broaden-and-build dynamics, and support the development of personally- and group-defined growth goals. We hypothesize that this process will increase leadership across development sectors, influenced by emerging community leaders.

The fourth stage links community demand for change with resources to support growth across specific domains. Communities who develop collective efficacy, increase positive emotion, meaning in life, spirituality, compassion and social curiosity may be better poised to engage in community-led projects across specific domains. Community cohesion and community leadership skills predict success of community-led total sanitation interventions (Venkataramanan, Crocker, Karon & Bartram, 2018).

The fifth stage involves normative engagement at a cultural level through telling stories related to success and on-going challenges, and to advocate for further support and strengthen dignity and respect for emerging community leaders.

Parallel to Fredrickson’s conceptualization of human flourishing on an individual level, where individuals “live within an optimal range of human functioning, one that connotes goodness, generativity, growth and resilience” (Fredrickson, 2005), we propose flourishing communities are intrinsically motivated to grow and lead towards their own determined, optimized potential. We forward the model as a testable, generalized way to link together sectors and socio-ecological levels in a quasi-linear manner to promote community-led development.

Study Aim

This study assesses whether collective efficacy predicts sociopolitical control among Kenyan participants in the KPJ intervention, and whether this association is predicted by positive emotion, meaning in life, spirituality, social curiosity and compassion in a serial fashion.

Methods

Participants

Study participants were recruited from the KPJ program during their normal weekly meetings. Village locations were selected because the program had expanded to these villages within the past 4 months from data collection. Each family in the program is represented by one family member. Eight participants, representing different families, were recruited from each of 42 internal-lending groups across 7 villages, yielding a total sample size (n=335). Focal families in each village were recruited to the program by intervention staff because their child was found sleeping on nearby streets. Aside from the focal family in each village, participants join through word-of-mouth recruitment. Most program participants, as reflected in the study sample, are women.

Measures

An interview questionnaire was created in English using scales that had been validated in multiple cultures and contexts. The questionnaire was translated into Kimeru, the local language in which the survey was administered, and back translated into English to ensure a reliable translation. Items that had different meanings in the back-translated version were refined to adapt the meaning to the local culture. All data reflect baseline data for a cluster-randomized trial of novel multicomponent curriculum based largely on positive psychological constructs called “Pathways to Flourishing.” All measures, in English and Kimeru versions, are available in the Supplemental Materials.

Outcome measures

The outcome measures for this study were the two factors comprising Zimmerman & Zaahniser’s sociopolitical control scale – Leadership Competence and Policy Control (Zimmerman & Zahniser, 1991). Since its development, the two-factor scale has been validated, adapted for youth, and utilized in contexts ranging from Malaysia, Israel, Kenya and urban United States (Itzhaky & York, 2000; Peterson, Peterson, Agre, Christens, & Morton, 2011). Originally measured on a 5-point Likert-type response format, we expanded the scale to 7-points in the present study to pair with other scales within the extended questionnaire with each point reflecting higher agreement with the statements in the two factors below.

The Leadership Competence factor comprises 8-items measuring self-perceived capacity to lead, speak in front of groups, and enlist the support of other people. The Leadership Competence factor includes statements like “I would rather have a leadership role when I’m involved in a group project” and had good reliability in the present sample (α=0.71) with a strong single factor solution.

The Policy Control factor assesses the extent to which respondents believe their interests are reflected in governing policy through 9-items with statements like “People like me are generally well qualified to participate in political activity and decision making in our country.” The sub-scale had good reliability in the present sample (α=0.85) with a strong single factor solution.

Exposure measure

The exposure measure for this study was collective efficacy, assessed using the “social response,” “social network and personal agency,” and “social attachment” subscales of the Collective Efficacy scale created by Delea et al. (2018). The social response subscale contains 6-items related to the perceived responsiveness of other community members, including statements like “If there is a problem that affects the entire community, for instance, crop disease, people in this community will help each other.” The social network and personal agency subscale includes 5-items related to the presence of mutually-supporting activity between social network members, including statements like “If you and your relatives suddenly had to go away for a day or two, you could count on your neighbours to take care of your children.” The social attachment subscale includes 3-items related to the sense of being accepted by and a part of the broader social environment, including statements like “People in this community accept me as a member of the community.” Together, these 14-items had good internal reliability (α=0.85) and acceptable single-factor solution using iterative principal factor analysis. The 14-items reflect belief in the accessibility, responsiveness, trustworthiness, competence and concern within respondents’ social networks.

Mediating measures

Mediation was assessed in a serial manner with stages of mediators assessed following the broaden-and-build dynamic of attachment security. Within the broaden-and-build dynamic of attachment security, better social relations contribute to more positive emotion, and more positive emotion support a broadened perspective and willingness to move beyond oneself towards other people, new possibilities, and relationships.

The first set of potential mediators included only positive emotion, following the hypothesis that positive emotion initiates the broaden and build dynamics (Fredrickson, 2013). The modified Differential Emotions Scale (mDES; Fredrickson, 2013) was used to assess the presence and frequency of experiencing positive emotions in the past 24 hours. This scale has been translated and validated in Italy, Pakistan and other contexts (Conte et al., 2020; Muzaffar, 2017). The original positive emotion sub-scale includes 10 items covering a range of positive emotions – amusement, wonder, gratitude, hopefulness, inspiration, alert, joyfulness, love, pride, peaceful. The cultural translation into Kimeru of wonder was difficult and did not load onto the same factor as the other positive emotions, leaving 9 items in the scale with good reliability (α=0.81).

The second set of potential mediators represented a broader perspective, or features representing a cognitively integrated engagement with the world. Two measures were used to identify a broader perspective – spirituality and meaning in life, both previously explored in the context of emergent phenomenon from social relations. Martela et al. (2018) found that positive emotion did not mediate the association between social relations and meaning in life, so we assessed and adapted to this possibility for both meaning in life and spirituality.

Spirituality was measured using a 9-item subscale identified from previous research on spirituality in the same communities previously (Goodman et al, 2021). To generate this 9-item scale, we conducted factor analysis on the Brief Multidimensional Measure for Religiousness and Spirituality (BMMRS; Fetzer Institute/National Institute on Aging Working Group, 1999). Two factors emerged from this measure – the first related to religious observance and the second related to perceived intimacy with and proximity with God, i.e. divine attachment. We utilized the second factor from this scale on the current study, including items that loaded >0.4 on the factor. The divine attachment subscale included items like “I feel God’s love for me, directly or through others” with good reliability (α=0.76). Spirituality was measured using a 7-point Likert-type scale reflecting degree of agreement with the statement.

Meaning in life was measured using the 3-item Meaning in Life questionnaire, short-form (MLQ-sf; Steger & Samman, 2012). The full 10-item version has been used in multiple Kenyan samples with high internal reliability coefficients (Goodman et al, 2019). The 3-item short-form was selected to reduce response burden, and under the hopes that the previously high reliability would be repeated with a shorter scale. The short-form includes items like “My life has a clear sense of purpose,” and demonstrated good reliability for a short scale (α=0.65). The MLQ-sf was measured on a 7-point scale reflecting degree of agreement with the statement.

The third set of potential mediators represented an effort to move towards subjects beyond oneself – compassion and social curiosity. Compassion was measured using the 16-item Compassion Scale (Pommier, Neff & Toth-Kiraly, 2020). The Compassion Scale measures the extent to which respondents perceive themselves to be moved by, concerned for and understanding of the well-being of others, including items like “I notice when people are upset, even if they don’t say anything.” The scale demonstrated good reliability in the present sample, with a single factor solution identified through iterative principal factors analysis (α=0.77).

Social curiosity is a subscale of the five-dimensional curiosity scale (Kashdan et al., 2018). The social curiosity subscale measures respondents’ interest in acquiring information on how other people think, feel and behave. The subscale contains 5-items similar to “I like finding out why people behave the way they do” and demonstrated good reliability (α=0.68).

Control variables

To control for potential confounding of gender, age, years of schooling and wealth, we included measures reflecting these domains. Gender was considered binary – male or female. Age was measured in years. Years of schooling was measured as completed number of years in formal schooling. Wealth was measured using an index of ownership of 12 common household items for an index ranging 0–12 (KR20 = 0.69).

Statistical Analyses

Primary analyses utilized structural equation modelling (SEM) to assess associations between collective efficacy and the two domains of sociopolitical control – Leadership Competence and Policy Control. Path analyses assessed the mediation of each additional set of serial mediator variables. Final models did not require that each set of potential mediators be maintained in pathways where the mediator variables were not significantly associated with the next variable in the model – be it the next mediating variable set or outcome of interest. After determining a preliminary path model using SEM, control variables were added to each pathway to adjust for potential confounding. Where variables were not associated with the outcome at p<0.20, the variable was removed from the pathway with the exception of the exposure variable – collective efficacy. All continuous variables were standardized, and all coefficients reported were fully standardized. All models were assessed using goodness of fit indices, and mediating effects were reported for each variable included in the final model. Covariance matrices were calculated for variables in the same mediator set, and maintained when covariance was significant to improve fit indices and model estimates.

Descriptive analyses were conducted to support interpretation of the primary SEM models, including bivariate correlation matrices with Bonferroni adjusted significance estimates and univariate descriptions. To promote understanding of each stage of the model, we provided regression estimates that account for the hierarchical data structure using random effects modelling with a random intercept calculated for the village-level and group-level.

Ethical Considerations

Data were collected from program participants as part of an on-going quality assessment of program elements, and, in this case, specifically to understand potential benefits of the newly developed “Pathways to Flourishing” curriculum. Respondents were informed prior to participation that their participation was fully optional, and each group receive $1 for each member who participated in the survey. The group benefit was intended to offset the potential perception of injustice of not being selected for the interview, and to support group dynamics related to equitable resource allocation. Each participant provided informed consent prior to participating in the study – verbal as opposed to written as functional literacy is not universal in the study population. Ethical exemption was provided by the Institutional Review Board at the University of Texas Medical Branch for the analysis of program-collected, de-identified secondary data.

Results

Table 1 demonstrates the non-standardized, univariate descriptions of model variables. The average age in years was 40. The average wealth index score was 5.2 out of a scale ranging 0–12. The average number of completed school years was 5.5. Over 90% of respondents were female. Leadership Competence, Collective Efficacy, Meaning in Life, and Spirituality had means that were within one unit from the highest possible value of 7.

Table 1:

Univariate Description of Model Variables

n Mean (%) SE 95%CI
Leadership Competence 335 6.01 0.05 5.91 6.11
Policy Control 335 4.93 0.08 4.77 5.08
Collective Efficacy 335 6.08 0.04 5.99 6.16
Positive Emotion 335 3 0.03 2.93 3.06
Meaning in Life 335 6.59 0.05 6.5 6.68
Spirituality 335 6.76 0.02 6.73 6.8
Social Curiosity 335 5.71 0.07 5.58 5.85
Compassion 335 6.3 0.04 6.24 6.37
Wealth index 335 5.24 0.13 4.98 5.49
Age, yrs 335 39.68 0.8 38.1 41.26
Years of Completed Schooling 335 5.45 0.33 4.8 6.11
Female 335 94% 0.01 91.5% 96.6%
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Notes: n = response size. % = percentage reporting this characteristic. SE = standard error. 95% CI = 95% confidence interval.

Table 2 shows correlations between continuous variables. Leadership Competence was significantly, and positively correlated with Policy Control, Collective Efficacy, Positive Emotion, Meaning in Life, Spirituality, Social Curiosity and Compassion. Policy Control was significantly and positively correlated with Collective Efficacy, Meaning in Life, and Social Curiosity. Collective Efficacy was significantly, and positively correlated with Positive Emotion, Meaning in Life, Spirituality, Social Curiosity, and Compassion. Positive Emotion was significantly and positively correlated with Meaning in Life, Spirituality, and Compassion. Meaning in Life was significantly and positively correlated with Spirituality, Social Curiosity and Compassion. Spirituality was significantly and positively correlated with Social Curiosity and Compassion. Social Curiosity was significantly and positively correlated with Compassion. Demographic were not associated (p<0.05) with any of the main variables of interest.

Table 2:

Correlation Matrix of Model Variables

LC PC CE PE MLQ Sp SC Comp. Wealth Age School
Leadership Competence 1
Policy Control 0.29*** 1
Collective Efficacy 0.34*** 0.2* 1
Positive Emotion 0.2* 0.13 0.22** 1
Meaning in Life 0.29*** 0.19* 0.35*** 0.28*** 1
Spirituality 0.3*** 0.12 0.47*** 0.2* 0.41*** 1
Social Curiosity 0.26*** 0.27*** 0.22** 0.14 0.29*** 0.29*** 1
Compassion 0.33*** 0.16 0.46*** 0.31*** 0.35*** 0.47*** 0.33*** 1
Wealth index 0.04 −0.05 −0.02 −0.02 0.05 0.01 0 −0.02 1
Age, yrs −0.08 0.01 −0.02 0 −0.02 0.06 0.04 0 −0.01 1
Years of Schooling −0.02 −0.13 −0.05 −0.02 0 −0.01 −0.01 −0.04 0.12 −0.18t 1
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Notes: Correlation matrix with Bonferroni adjusted significance estimates. t indicates p<0.06

*

p<0.05

**

p<0.01

***

p<0.001.

Collective efficacy significantly predicted higher Leadership Competence, controlling for wealth, age, school and gender (β = 0.33, 95%CI: 0.23–0.43). After including mediating variables, the magnitude of association between collective efficacy and Leadership Competence reduced by more than 50% (β = 0.16, 95%CI: 0.05–0.28). Compassion and Social Curiosity remained significantly associated with Leadership Competence in the final model (β = 0.14, 95%CI: 0.02–0.25; β = 0.12, 95%CI: 0.01–0.22). Collective Efficacy was significantly predictive of higher Policy Control (β = 0.19, 95%CI: 0.08–0.29), before including mediating variables. After including mediating variables, the magnitude of effect between Collective Efficacy and Policy Control reduced 37% (β = 0.12, 95%CI: 0.0–0.24).

In final models, compassion significantly predicted higher Leadership Competence (β = 0.12, 95%CI: 0.02–0.25), but not Policy Control. Social Curiosity significantly predicted higher Leadership Competence (β = 0.12, 95%CI: 0.01–0.22) and Policy Control (β = 0.2, 95%CI: 0.09–0.31).

Figure 1 depicts the Structural Equation Model between Collective Efficacy and Leadership Competence. The table in Figure 1 depicts the total effects between primary model variables and Leadership Competence. The association between Collective Efficacy and Leadership Competence was significantly mediated by Positive Emotion, Meaning in Life, Spirituality, Compassion and Social Curiosity. Each mediator variable, Positive Emotion, Meaning in Life, Spirituality and Compassion, predicted significantly higher Leadership Competence.

Figure 1:

Figure 1:

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Structural Equation Model of Collective efficacy, Leadership Competence and Broaden-and-Build constructs

Figure 2 depicts the Structural Equation Model between Collective Efficacy and Policy Control. Collective Efficacy significantly predicted Policy Control, though there were fewer significant mediators of this association than between Collective Efficacy and Leadership Competence. Only Meaning in Life and Social Curiosity mediated the association between Collective Efficacy and Policy Control.

Figure 2:

Figure 2:

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Structural Equation Model of Collective efficacy, Policy Control and Broaden-and-Build constructs

Discussion

This study seeks to support the development of a novel conception of “flourishing communities.” Flourishing communities are those with the collective capacity to provide care for members, respond successfully to threats, identify and successfully engage growth opportunities. Multiple research streams flow to inform this conceptualization, finding integration and creative expression in an active program to support communities, families and children who have been affected by life on the streets – or at risk of migrating to street life. Flourishing communities integrates insights from community-led development work, multilevel resilience theories, and positive psychology. To support the development of interventions fostering flourishing communities, we ask the question – how can community leadership dynamics be understood in such a way to inform interventions seeking to support communities as the integration points for a range of Sustainable Development Goals, including community-determined directions and priorities?

Broadly, data analyses support the flourishing community model. Collective efficacy was significantly associated with Leadership Competence and Policy Control, though mediating variables were not equivalent between these two models. A larger set of mediating variables were significantly predictive of Leadership Competence than Policy Control. Common to both models were meaning in life and social curiosity, while positive emotion, spirituality and compassion only predicted Leadership Competence. Zimmerman (1995) proposes critical awareness, understanding causal agents, skill development and community involvement support psychological empowerment; these features may be reflected in the current analysis of factors associated with sociopolitical control. Future research may explore the role of curiosity in supporting critical awareness, understanding causal agents, skill development and community involvement.

In secondary regression analysis, positive emotion significantly predicted Policy Control when not controlling for collective efficacy. It may be that positive emotion supports the development of collective efficacy – a potential example of recursion between model variables. To parse out the strength of directionality among model variables, there is a need for longitudinal data with multiple panels to conduct more nuanced analyses.

Present data support further investigation into the third scaffolding stage of our flourishing community model – building positive psychological assets to promote flourishing, generative, supportive, resilient, compassionate, curious, responsive and self-determined communities. Future research should explore whether variables predicting sociopolitical control can be improved, and whether sociopolitical control contributes to sector-specific improvements as proposed by the model. Previous programmatic work has demonstrated associations between positive emotion and entrepreneurialism (Baluku, Kikooma, & Kibanja, 2016; Eijdenerg & Thompson, 2020), parenting (Don et al., 2021), and HIV viral suppression (Wilson et al., 2017). Positive emotion predicts longevity and, as seen in this study, other psychosocial benefits and sociopolitical control (Diener & Chan, 2011). Successful validation of the flourishing community model at each proposed stage, and across sectoral domains, may provide a novel approach to implementing Sustainable Development Goals while building and respecting community dignity (Le Blanc, 2015).

We hypothesized that higher collective efficacy would predict higher positive emotions, similar to how dyadic social relations predict higher positive emotions. Collective efficacy, like dyadic relationships explored within social attachment theory, builds on working scripts indicating the availability and responsiveness of trusted social figures who are competent to respond and improve the conditions of social network egos. Considering collective efficacy as akin to, or perhaps even a form of, attachment permitted theoretical linkage between collective efficacy and broaden-and-build dynamics of positive emotion and supportive relationships established by prior research (Mikulincer & Shaver, 2020). Similarly, exploring how and whether internal working models developed during infancy, and through social relationships across the lifespan, may position future research to connect adult collective efficacy with life course trajectories. It may be, for example, that children with lower quality social relationships have lower collective efficacy and sociopolitical control in adulthood – potentially revealing another way in which childhood social experiences influence life-course trajectories.

Limitations

As a cross-sectional analysis, there is no temporal order to study data. Two informing models – community-led development and the broaden and build cycle of attachment security – provided the central constructs and framework, while multisystemic resilience theory provided the motivation for this study. There are most likely recursive dynamics between investigated variables. Further analyses are required to explore directionality, nuance, qualitative experience, and programmatic effectiveness of the flourishing community model.

Data are subject to self-reported biases. Respondents with a higher social desirability bias likely inflated reports of collective efficacy, sociopolitical control and mediating variables. This would indicate the model reflects, in part or full, confounding by an unmeasured and un-controlled heterogenic condition. Study conclusions are supported by the prior hypothesized framework and strong randomized control data. Results of the on-going pilot trial of the “Pathways to Flourishing” study will hopefully clarify this possibility.

Even without spurious associations in analyses, self-reported sociopolitical control may or may not predict observable leadership competence and policy control. Further research is required to validate whether these measures predict engagement within the sociopolitical sphere.

Data provide initial support for a novel and potentially fecund “flourishing communities” paradigm, synthesizes experimentally-supported theories developed primarily focused on individuals and dyadic relations.

Conclusions

We present a new model for community transformation deserving further investigation – both within the study context and beyond. Research must establish the extent to which observed pathways are modifiable and increase sociopolitical control among community members. In articulating theoretical underpinnings of the model, we intend to support the transferability of the model to other contexts. Still, the extent to which the flourishing community model may be transferred to other contexts requires further research. This study provides early empirical data, alongside existing theoretical support, to animate a potentially widely scalable, testable, sustainable, integrative and impactful model to promote community engagement and leadership.

Supplementary Material

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Table 3:

Random effects regression of Leadership Competence and Policy Control on Collective Efficacy and Full Mediators

Leadership Competence Policy Control
Collective Efficacy, only Full Mediator model Collective Efficacy, only Full Mediator model
Coef. 95% CI Coef. 95% CI Coef. 95% CI Coef. 95% CI
Collective Efficacy 0.33*** 0.23 0.43 0.16** 0.05 0.28 0.19*** 0.08 0.29 0.12t 0 0.24
Positive Emotion 0.07 −0.03 0.17 0.06 −0.05 0.17
Meaning in Life 0.08 −0.04 0.19 0.08 −0.04 0.2
Spirituality 0.08 −0.03 0.2 −0.05 −0.17 0.08
Compassion 0.14* 0.02 0.25 0.01 −0.11 0.14
Social Curiosity 0.12* 0.01 0.22 0.2*** 0.09 0.31
Wealth 0.02 −0.02 0.06 0.02 −0.02 0.06 0.01 −0.06 0.03 −0.02 −0.06 0.03
Age −0.01 −0.01 0 −0.01t −0.01 0 0 −0.01 0.01 0 −0.01 0.01
Years of schooling 0 −0.02 0.01 0 −0.02 0.01 −0.02* −0.04 0 −0.02t −0.03 0
Female −0.38t −0.82 0.06 −0.27 −0.69 0.15 −0.33 −0.78 0.11 −0.21 −0.64 0.23
Random-effects Coef. 95%CI Coef. 95%CI Coef. 95%CI Coef. 95%CI
Village 0.03 0 0.18 0.02 0 0.15 0 0 0 0 0 0
Group 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.01 0 0.94 0.02 0 0.5
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Notes: Random effects linear models of sociopolitical control factors (leadership competence and policy control) on collective efficacy, and “broaden and build” constructs – positive emotion, meaning in life, spirituality, compassion and social curiosity. Models control for wealth, age, years of formal schooling, and female gender. Random effects calculated for potential clustering at the village- and group-levels.

*

indicates p<0.05

**

p<0.01

***

p<0.001.

Acknowledgements:

The women and men who strive with care and grit to make their communities flourish inspire us, and elicit the best support we know how to offer. First using compassionate knowledge of a small interdisciplinary work group at Emory University, the flourishing communities model is informed by decades of passionate and insightful research from multiple avenues. Finally, to the children living on the streets asking us to make for them a better world, we are trying our best – sorry to require your patience.

Funding is made possible by the National Institute of Mental Health (K01MH119973), and the Moody Methodist Permanent Endowment Fund.

Footnotes

Conflict of Interest statement: Authors declare no conflict of interests.

Declarations: Authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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Supplementary Materials

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NIHMS1848135-supplement-supinfo1.pptx (102KB, pptx)
supinfo2
NIHMS1848135-supplement-supinfo2.pdf (172.8KB, pdf)

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