Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Materials logoLink to Materials
editorial
. 2023 May 23;16(11):3911. doi: 10.3390/ma16113911

Special Issue “Mineral Composite Materials Produced with Waste/Recycled Components”—Editorial Note and Critical Review of the Problems

Agata Stempkowska 1,*, Tomasz Gawenda 1
PMCID: PMC10253934  PMID: 37297045

1. Introduction

Modern materials science encompasses a range of interdisciplinary issues and goes beyond the conventional curricula of universities and technical courses. Today, a holistic approach is important, so waste materials should be treated as raw materials. Of particular interest seems to be the use of mineral and organic waste in advanced composites. A wide range of materials can be used in recycling; these materials can be artificially obtained aggregates, simple and polymeric concretes, clay-cement binders, granules that work as sorbents, filters or soil substrates, and many others. A common feature is the treatment of waste/recycled raw materials as a full component of manufactured composites. The word “waste” connotes a material devoid of value and utility. However, developing technology makes it possible to use waste materials to produce a range of high-performance composite products that can also be recycled. There is a pressing need for research and development to maximize the benefits of using recycled waste materials in composite products.

2. Impact Assessment

An assessment of the impact of a particular topic can be demonstrated by the number of scientific publications on that topic. A good example of this approach is bibliometric analysis, by means of which the qualitative and quantitative analysis of scientific publications registered in databases can be carried out and interesting results can be obtained. In general, a relatively large number of publications on the use of alternative materials in the manufacture of useful materials can be observed, but in order to verify this, a detailed analysis was carried out for records registered in the Web of Science (WoS) database. The WoS Core Collection database was selected, and waste materials and recycled materials were set as the primary search criteria. The all-fields option was selected in the documents searched, and the period analyzed was all available years up to the first quarter of 2023 (Figure 1). The search was conducted from 12 to 14 April, 2023. Search results of 177,931 records for waste materials and 70,547 records for recycled materials were obtained. It should be noted that publications on recycling topics began to appear only in 1970, while the first articles on waste materials were registered in 1912. The number of publications registered in the WoS database by year is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Figure 1

Open in a new tab

Number of available publications in the field of recycled materials and waste materials.

In the overall trend, it is important to note the exponential increase in the number of publications starting in the 1990s. The results in this regard indicate that the issues of the use of waste and recycling raw materials are of great interest; an interest that has been growing, especially in the last decade.

The next step was to refine the search, and publications from 2010 onward were provided for further analysis in an effort to take into account recent research developments. The records obtained (143,312 for waste materials and 39,766 for recycled materials) were analyzed under the following categories: region/country, publication source (journal name), research area, and scientific institution. Table 1 shows the most common research areas of the searches. The results of the two searches are similar, mainly in the environmental and material sciences category but also in the chemical sciences group. The three most popular areas are environmental sciences, material science multidisciplinarity, and engineering environmental. It is worth mentioning that one record (publication) can be assigned to several areas, so the cumulative percentage in Table 2 is higher than 100%. This can be clearly seen in the first four categories as the cumulative percentage share for them alone exceeds 100 percent; many publications on problems with waste and recycling materials must be associated with at least two of the leading areas. It should be noted that multi-author publications are often found in several research areas.

Table 1.

Most common research areas associated with publications on the topic.

Waste Materials Recycled Materials
Research Area Number of Publications [%] Research Area Number of Publications [%]
Environmental Sciences 42,057 33.68 Material Science Multidiscyplinary 16,846 42.36
Material Science Multidiscyplinary 39,710 31.80 Environmental Sciences 10,317 25.94
Engineering Environmental 32,329 25.89 Engineering Environmental 8040 20.22
Engineering Chemical 16,780 13.44 Engineering Civil 7353 18.49
Energy Fuels 14,535 11.63 Construction Building Technology 6811 17.13
Engineering Civil 12,222 9.79 Green Sustainable Science Technology 5832 14.67
Green Sustainable Science Technology 11,919 9.54 Chemistry Physical 4689 11.79
Chemistry Multidiscyplinary 11,530 9.23 Engineering Chemical 4273 10.75
Chemistry Physical 11,185 8.96 Chemistry Multidiscyplinary 4223 10.62
Construction Building Technology 11,042 8.84 Physics Applied 3456 8.69
Open in a new tab

Table 2.

Top 10 journals with the largest number of publications in the discussed field.

Waste Materials Recycled Materials
Journal Title Number of Publications [%] IF Journal Title Number of Publications [%] IF
Journal of Hazardous Materials 5160 3.60 14.224 Construction and Building Materials 3119 5.44 7.693
Construction and Building Materials 4476 3.12 7.693 Journal of Cleaner Production 1821 3.18 11.072
Journal of Cleaner Production 3515 2.45 11.072 Materials 1246 2.17 3.748
Advanced Materials Research 2566 1.79 25.809 Advanced Materials Research 1069 1.87 25.809
Materials 2490 1.74 3.748 Journal of Hazardous Materials 946 1.65 14.224
Materials Today Procedings 2134 1.49 - Waste Management 859 1.50 8.816
IOP Conference Series, Materials Science and Engineering 1987 1.39 - Resources Conservation and Recycling 835 1.46 13.716
Waste Management 1966 1.37 8.816 Sustainability 813 1.42 3.889
Sustainability 1542 1.07 3.889 ACS Suistainable Chemistry Engineering 554 0.89 9.224
Environmental Science and Pollution Research 1384 0.96 5.190 Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering 511 0.97 3.651
Open in a new tab

Figure 2 shows that the countries that generate the most publications on waste and recycled materials are China, USA, and India, with China producing ¼ of the world’s research and articles in this field.

Figure 2.

Figure 2

Open in a new tab

Top 10 countries with the highest number of publications in Web of Science database.

Table 2 shows the titles of the journals in which the most frequently published articles in the field in question are published. While the position of individual journals differs, the same journals appear on both lists. It is worth noting that the frequency of publication does not depend on the IF of the journal.

An analysis of the obtained records from the WoS database grouped by publisher is presented in Table 3. It contains the 10 publishers with the highest number of publications on waste and recycled materials. The first three publishers that publish the most on this research topic are, in both cases, Elsevier, Springer Nature, and MDPI. Note that many of the journals are owned by the same publisher. For example, in 2010, in the journal Materials, the topics published by MDPI accounted for 0.83% of published materials, while in 2023, the number was 10.73%.

Table 3.

Top 10 publishers with the most publications on waste and recycled materials.

Waste Materials Recycled Materials
Publisher Number of Publications [%] Publisher Number of Publications [%]
Elsevier 52,742 36.78 Elsevier 20,168 35.20
Springer Nature 15,640 10.91 Springer Nature 5424 9.47
MDPI 10,595 7.39 MDPI 4439 7.75
Wiley 5836 4.07 Wiley 2978 5.20
Taylor&Francis 4890 3.41 Amer Chemical Soc 2600 4.54
Amer Chemical Soc 4582 3.20 Taylor&Francis 1926 3.36
Trans Tech Publications Ltd. 4065 2.83 Royal Soc Chemistry 1825 3.18
Iop Publishing Ltd. 3572 2.49 Trans Tech Publications Ltd. 1814 3.17
Royal Soc Chemistry 3373 2.35 IOP Publishing Ltd. 1054 1.84
Sage 1580 1.10 Sage 966 1.67
Open in a new tab

When it concerns research on waste materials, Chinese researchers from the Chinese Academy of Sciences are the most active, followed by those from Egypt and India. The recycling phenomenon is also most extensively researched in China, with as many as 5 research units in the top 10 (Table 4).

Table 4.

Top 10 best publishing research units.

Waste Materials Recycled Materials
University/Institute Number of Publications [%] University/Institute Number of Publications [%]
Chinese Academy of Sciences 3409 2.37 Chinese Academy of Sciences 1728 3.01
Egyptian Knowledge Bank EKB 2443 1.70 Centre National De la Recherche Scientifique CNRS 961 1.67
Indian Institute of Technology System IIT System 2120 1.47 Egyptian Knowledge Bank EKB 727 1.27
Centre National De la Recherche Scientifique CNRS 2089 1.45 Indian Institute of Technology System IIT System 651 1.13
National Institute of Technology NIT System 1764 1.23 United States Department of Energy DOE 600 1.05
United States Department of Energy DOE 1631 1.13 Udice French Research Universities 597 1.04
Council of Scientific Industrial Research CSIR India 1331 0.93 Tongji University 534 0.93
Udice French Research Universities 1249 0.87 University of Chinese Academy of Sciences CAS 523 0.91
Tsinghua Univerisity 1206 0.84 Central South University 467 0.81
Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas CSIC 1142 0.79 Tsinghua Univerisity 448 0.78
Open in a new tab

3. Qualitative Analysis and Discussion

The qualitative analysis was narrowed down to the two most common research areas, which are materials science multidisciplinarity and environmental science.

3.1. Scientific Area

By analyzing the content, we draw the conclusion that the dominant issue emerging from the topics of waste and recycled materials is the technology of building materials and, in particular, concrete technology (Table 5). It can be concluded that these issues are present in virtually every scientific and economic field; from mineral and biotic resources, through the broader chemical and physical sciences to geotechnics. In the areas analyzed, a very important component is the study of water pollution and treatment, land contamination, fuel and energy use of natural resources, and sustainable development. It can be concluded that waste is treated as a reusable raw material after appropriate treatment and processing. This demonstrates humans’ conscious and holistic approach to nature and its resources.

Table 5.

Top 10 scientific units that publish on the subject.

Waste Materials Recycled Materials
University/Institute Number of Publications [%] University/Institute Number of Publications [%]
Concrete Science 10,179 15.500 Concrete Science 5892 21.730
Water Treatment 7382 11.241 Sustainability Science 3673 13.546
Sustainability Science 5519 8.404 Asphalt 1780 6.565
Bioengineering 3204 4.879 Polymer Science 1155 4.260
Energy & Fuels 2590 3.944 Electrochemistry 1151 4.245
Herbicides, Pesticides and Ground Poisoning 2312 3.520 Water Treatment 972 3.585
Paper and Wood Materials Science 2285 3.479 Photocatalysts 908 3.349
Soil Science 2140 3.259 Paper and Wood Materials Science 750 2.766
Electrochemistry 1924 2.930 Mineral and Metal Processing 741 2.733
Asphalt 1567 2.386 Energy and Fuels 579 2.135
Open in a new tab

3.2. Content Analysis and Discussion

A detailed content analysis addresses mineral composites that can be produced with waste and recycled materials. However, it is impossible to list all the titles and authors who deal with waste and recycling in their works. This paper examines a selection of recent publications in this field, written between 2022 and 2023, with a focus on structural, pavement and building materials.

The use of recycled materials is an important environmental issue. Large quantities of waste raw materials recovered from the demolition of asphalt road structures indicate the need to find new ways to use them. In the case of road rehabilitation projects, large quantities of secondary raw materials are mostly recovered in the form of reclaimed asphalt pavements, reclaimed concrete, and recycled aggregate [1,2,3,4]. The amount of waste materials and by-products is increasing and threatens environmental safety. Some of this waste can be used in the production of construction materials, such as concrete, or substitute cementitious materials [5,6,7,8,9,10,11,12]. Research is also being conducted using expired cement [13]. Meeting the current demand for concrete does not only require the extraction of tons of gravel and sand, but also the burning of large amounts of fossil fuel resources in the cement-burning process. Therefore, concrete recycling is crucial in achieving a materially efficient society, especially with different categories of concrete and the goal of phasing out fossil fuels [14,15,16,17]. Often, ground glass is also used as an alternative material for concrete [18,19,20,21].

A good direction for reusing fibers from textile waste is to develop innovative and sustainable materials for use in construction. Currently, managing the large amounts of textile waste generated and reducing the damage that this waste causes to the ecosystem involves finding solutions to reuse it, for example, as alternative reinforcement for concrete [22,23].

Interesting applications of waste materials such as fly ash, iron slag and silica fume can be found in fired materials such as bricks, facade bricks, tiles [24,25,26,27]. However, the authors of the above publications point out the difficulties in using waste materials. Mineral wastes, despite homogenization processes, are characterized by low compositional stability by the presence of soluble compounds. Such compounds can cause efflorescence on the surface of plastics, which causes defects in use, especially in the production of finishing elements.

The use of waste as a construction material or soil stabilization is an emerging field in the construction industry. The introduction of new supplementary materials to strengthen local soils using industrial waste is an inexpensive and more effective method of soil improvement. High-calcium asphalt concrete production waste is being used to stabilize low-quality soil as a sub-base material for road structures. Asphalt waste dust is successfully used as a sub-base material in road structures in accordance with standards for pavement materials [28,29,30]. Soils can be easily strengthened using low-energy stabilization methods [31].

Modern and promising construction materials are alkali-activated binders from numerous industrial wastes and by-products. Glass powders, cementitious substitute materials, mineral powders, slag, and many others are used here [32,33,34,35].

4. Conclusions

  1. An analysis of articles in the field of waste and recycled materials registered in the WoS database indicates that the environmental direction is of crucial importance, and its role in research is becoming increasingly important;

  2. Environmental issues, such as the limitation of natural resources and large amounts of waste, are leading the way in developing a culture of sustainable construction. The two main environmental problems are the depletion of natural resources and the disposal of waste materials generated during various processes;

  3. The problem of disposal and management of solid waste materials has become one of the main environmental, economic, and social problems. Not only does the use of solid waste in the production of construction materials solve the problem of disposal, but it also helps transform waste into useful and profitable products.

Institutional Review Board Statement

Not applicable.

Informed Consent Statement

Not applicable.

Data Availability Statement

All data is available for review from the authors of the article.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Footnotes

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

References

  • 1.Buczyński P., Šrámek J., Mazurek G. The Influence of Recycled Materials on Cold Mix with Foamed Bitumen Properties. Materials. 2023;16:1208. doi: 10.3390/ma16031208. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 2.Baldo N., Rondinella F., Daneluz F., Pasetto M. Foamed Bitumen Mixtures for Road Construction Made with 100% Waste Materials: A Laboratory Study. Sustainability. 2022;14:6056. doi: 10.3390/su14106056. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 3.Bilgen G., Altuntas O.F. Sustainable re-use of waste glass, cement and lime treated dredged material as pavement material. Case Stud. Constr. Mater. 2023;18:e01815. doi: 10.1016/j.cscm.2022.e01815. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 4.Behnood A., Ameri M. Experimental investigation of stone matrix asphalt mixtures containing steel slag. Sci. Iran. 2012;19:1214–1219. doi: 10.1016/j.scient.2012.07.007. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 5.Zhang C., Hu M., van der Meide M., Di Maio F., Yang X., Gao X., Li K., Zhao H., Li C. Life cycle assessment of material footprint in recycling: A case of concrete recycling. Waste Manag. 2023;155:311–319. doi: 10.1016/j.wasman.2022.10.035. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 6.Kumar K., Dixit S., Arora R., Vatin N.I., Singh J., Soloveva O.V., Ilyashenko S.B., John V., Buddhi D. Comparative Analysis of Waste Materials for Their Potential Utilization in Green Concrete Applications. Materials. 2022;15:4180. doi: 10.3390/ma15124180. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 7.Khan H., Baig A., Faisal M., Khan A., Gul K., Ali N., Ali N., Bilal M. Exploration of solid waste materials for sustainable manufacturing of cementitious composites. Environ. Sci. Pollut. Res. 2022;29:86606–86615. doi: 10.1007/s11356-022-21473-7. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 8.Stempkowska A., Gawenda T., Chajec A., Sadowski Ł. Effect of Granite Powder Grain Size and Grinding Time of the Properties of Cementitious Composites. Materials. 2022;15:8837. doi: 10.3390/ma15248837. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 9.Ma Z., Hu R., Shen J., Wang C., Wu H. Chloride diffusion and binding capacity of sustainable cementitious materials with construction waste powder as cement replacement. Constr. Build. Mater. 2023;368:130352. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.130352. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 10.Lee J.-I., Kim C.-Y., Yoon J.-H., Choi S.-J. Mechanical Properties of Cement Mortar Containing Ground Waste Newspaper as Cementitious Material. Materials. 2023;16:1374. doi: 10.3390/ma16041374. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 11.Stefanidou M., Kesikidou F., Konopisi S., Vasiadis T. Investigating the Suitability of Waste Glass as a Supplementary Binder and Aggregate for Cement and Concrete. Sustainability. 2023;15:3796. doi: 10.3390/su15043796. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 12.Wu H., Yang D., Wang C., Ma Z. Microstructural and Macroperformance of Recycled Mortar with High-Quality Recycled Aggregate and Powder from High-Performance Concrete Waste. J. Mater. Civ. Eng. 2023;35:04022482. doi: 10.1061/(ASCE)MT.1943-5533.0004657. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 13.Kumar G.S., Deoliya R. Recycled cement and recycled fine aggregates as alternative resources of raw materials for sustainable cellular light weight flowable material. Constr. Build. Mater. 2022;326:126878. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.126878. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 14.Aziz P.L., Abdulkadir M.R. Mechanical Properties and Flexural Strength of Reinforced Concrete Beams Containing Waste Material as Partial Replacement for Coarse Aggregates. Int. J. Concr. Struct. Mater. 2022;16:56. doi: 10.1186/s40069-022-00550-8. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 15.Helmy S.H., Tahwia A.M., Mahdy M.G., Elrahman M.A. Development and characterization of sustainable concrete incorporating a high volume of industrial waste materials. Constr. Build. Mater. 2023;365:130160. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.130160. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 16.Shourijeh P.T., Rad A.M., Bigloo F.H.B., Binesh S.M. Application of recycled concrete aggregates for stabilization of clay reinforced with recycled tire polymer fibers and glass fibers. Constr. Build. Mater. 2022;355:129172. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.129172. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 17.Raza S.S., Fahad M., Ali B., Amir M.T., Alashker Y., Elhag A.B. Enhancing the Performance of Recycled Aggregate Concrete Using Micro-Carbon Fiber and Secondary Binding Material. Sustainability. 2022;14:14613. doi: 10.3390/su142114613. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 18.Mansour M.A., Ismail M.H.B., Imran Latif Q.B.a., Alshalif A.F., Milad A., Bargi W.A.A. A Systematic Review of the Concrete Durability Incorporating Recycled Glass. Sustainability. 2023;15:3568. doi: 10.3390/su15043568. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 19.Kuri J.C., Hosan A., Shaikh F.U.A., Biswas W.K. The Effect of Recycled Waste Glass as a Coarse Aggregate on the Properties of Portland Cement Concrete and Geopolymer Concrete. Buildings. 2023;13:586. doi: 10.3390/buildings13030586. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 20.Guo P., Meng W., Du J., Stevenson L., Han B., Bao Y. Lightweight ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC) with expanded glass aggregate: Development, characterization, and life-cycle assessment. Constr. Build. Mater. 2023;371:130441. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2023.130441. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 21.Hama S.M., Ali Z.M., Zayan H.S. Structural behavior of reinforced concrete incorporating glass waste as coarse aggregate. J. Struct. Integr. Maint. 2023;8:59–66. doi: 10.1080/24705314.2023.2165470. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 22.Salah F., Vololonirina O., Gidik H. Development of fibrous materials applied in timber-framed construction using recycled fibers from textile waste. J. Clean. Prod. 2022;347:131203. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.131203. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 23.Briga-Sá A., Gaibor N., Magalhães L., Pinto T., Leitão D. Thermal performance characterization of cement-based lightweight blocks incorporating textile waste. Constr. Build. Mater. 2022;321:126330. doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat.2022.126330. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 24.Izak P., Delikhovskyi Y., Olszyna A. Use of Post-Flotation Solidified Tailings from Copper Production for Ceramic Tile Production. Materials. 2023;16:132. doi: 10.3390/ma16010132. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 25.Danish A., Totiç E., Bayram M., Sütçü M., Gencel O., Erdoğmuş E., Ozbakkaloglu T. Assessment of Mineralogical Characteristics of Clays and the Effect of Waste Materials on Their Index Properties for the Production of Bricks. Materials. 2022;15:8908. doi: 10.3390/ma15248908. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 26.Simão F.V., Chambart H., Vandemeulebroeke L., Nielsen P., Adrianto L.R., Pfister S., Cappuyns V. Mine waste as a sustainable resource for facing bricks. J. Clean. Prod. 2022;368:133118. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.133118. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 27.Singh S., Dalbehera M.M., Maiti S., Bisht R.S., Balam N.B., Panigrahi S.K. Investigation of agro-forestry and construction demolition wastes in alkali-activated fly ash bricks as sustainable building materials. Waste Manag. 2023;159:114–124. doi: 10.1016/j.wasman.2023.01.031. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 28.Alzhanova G.Z., Aibuldinov Y.K., Iskakova Z.B., Khabidolda S.M., Abdiyussupov G.G., Omirzak M.T., Murali G., Vatin N.I. Development of Environmentally Clean Construction Materials Using Industrial Waste. Materials. 2022;15:5726. doi: 10.3390/ma15165726. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 29.Abarca-Guerrero L., Lobo-Ugalde S., Méndez-Carpio N., Rodríguez-Leandro R., Rudin-Vega V. Zero Waste Systems: Barriers and Measures to Recycling of Construction and Demolition Waste. Sustainability. 2022;14:15265. doi: 10.3390/su142215265. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 30.Chaiyaput S., Sertsoongnern P., Ayawanna J. Utilization of Waste Dust from Asphalt Concrete Manufacturing as a Sustainable Subbase Course Material in Pavement Structures. Sustainability. 2022;14:9804. doi: 10.3390/su14169804. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 31.Stempkowska A., Wójcik Ł., Ostrowski K.A., Gawenda T. Low-Energy Clay–Cement Slurries Find Application as Waterproofing Membranes for Limiting the Migration of Contaminants—Case Studies in Poland. Energies. 2023;16:230. doi: 10.3390/en16010230. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 32.Manikandan P., Vasugi V. Potential utilization of waste glass powder as a precursor material in synthesizing ecofriendly ternary blended geopolymer matrix. J. Clean. Prod. 2022;355:131860. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.131860. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 33.Salamanova M., Murtazaev S.-A., Saidumov M., Alaskhanov A., Murtazaeva T., Fediuk R. Recycling of Cement Industry Waste for Alkali-Activated Materials Production. Materials. 2022;15:6660. doi: 10.3390/ma15196660. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 34.Polydorou T., Spanou M., Savva P., Sakkas K., Oikonomopoulou K., Petrou M.F., Nicolaides D. Development of a High Strength Geopolymer Incorporating Quarry Waste Diabase Mud (DM) and Ground Granulated Blast-Furnace Slag (GGBS) Materials. 2022;15:5946. doi: 10.3390/ma15175946. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 35.Jiang X., Zhang Y., Zhang Y., Ma J., Xiao R., Guo F., Bai Y., Huang B. Influence of size effect on the properties of slag and waste glass-based geopolymer paste. J. Clean. Prod. 2023;383:135428. doi: 10.1016/j.jclepro.2022.135428. [DOI] [Google Scholar]

Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Data Availability Statement

All data is available for review from the authors of the article.

Articles from Materials are provided here courtesy of Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI)

RESOURCES