Double burden: Exploring the digital divide in the Burmese educational system following the 2021 coup d’ etat and the COVID-19 pandemic

Abstract

The 2021 military coup d’état in Myanmar and the Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic commencing at the end of 2019 have had major impacts on the already existing digital divide in this Southeast Asian country. This paper aims to explore the effects of these two events on the digital divide and their consequences on the learning practices of students in Myanmar. Following a broad review of relevant literature, primary data were collected from students in Myanmar about their use of IT for online learning and the outcomes. The raw data resulting from this field research has been shared with stakeholders who analyzed, evaluated, and commented on it during expert interviews. The main findings are: IT usage for online education among students in Myanmar is a matter of major concern. A majority of students nationwide have no access to computers. The IT skill level in the country corresponds to this finding and is only on an average level. Smartphones are more accessible but are often old or of lower quality. Internet connections are available but are vulnerable to disruptions initiated by the military regime. Therefore, it can be concluded that students in Myanmar in many cases did not have the technical equipment or skills necessary to learn effectively through the usage of IT during the national crises. Nevertheless, it can be stated that IT helped and was also supportive in sustaining and improving the well-being of students in Myanmar.

1. Introduction

Myanmar (also known by the name Burma) has long been one of the most crisis-stricken countries in Southeast Asia. After gaining its independence in 1948 from being a British colony and following a brief democratic phase, the country has been ruled by a succession of military regimes for many decades. More than 50 million of its 54 million total residents currently live under the poverty threshold (ADB, 2022a), while the entire population has long endured ethnic conflicts and political instability, been alienated and isolated by former international partners, and struggled with poor infrastructure, insufficient social systems, and a weak economy for an extended period of time (Bjarnegård, 2020; HRW, 2022).

Following tentative initial steps towards democratization initiated by the former military regime starting in 2008, the first civilian (former military general Thein Sein) was elected president in 2011, and democracy leader Aung San Suu Kyi came to power in 2015. Her administration brought progress towards reforms, peace, and democracy; modernizations in many sectors in Myanmar had just started and were about to show first improvements prior to the 2021 military coup (BBC, 2021; Lubina, 2022). Also, in the education sector, significant reforms and improvements were initiated: a national Education Law in 2014 and an amendment in 2015 guaranteed the right to education to all citizens, made primary education mandatory, increased the numbers of teachers, and thereby improved the pupil-to-teacher ratio (Tie, 2022). These developments were seen as the most promising changes for Myanmar in many years and raised hope for a peaceful, successful transition from an authoritarian government to a democratic political system. Besides improvements in the political environment, the economy also improved. The gross domestic product (GDP) at current prices rose more than doubled between 2010 and 2020 (Clapp, 2015; ICG, 2021; Statista, 2022b).

These events brought a decade of democratization, liberalization, and political reforms to Myanmar. However, two major crises, namely, the COVID-19 pandemic and the military coup in 2021, disrupted the reforms initiated by Aung San Suu Kyi, and shortly afterward brought them to a violent end. Since the end of 2019, the global Coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic has kept the world in its grip. The relatively weak Burmese healthcare system which have been experiencing a state of widespread political instability for decades was caught unprepared. By March 2023, around 630,000 confirmed cases of COVID-19 have been recorded, and more than 19,000 deaths were reported (WHO, 2022). In addition, the pandemic led to increasing demands for the use of information technology (IT) in the educational sector to maintain social distancing. The sudden shift to online learning requires a sufficient IT infrastructure and a certain level of IT skills among students and teachers (Soe, 2020). Although, Myanmar has attempted to improve its IT infrastructures in recent years, this positive trend has since been reversed, with the usage of IT being hindered by the military coup in 2021.

In early 2021 the Burmese military – called the Tatmadaw – carried out a coup d’état (Armstrong, 2021). As of January 2023, more than 2800 people have been killed, a population of 1.2 million inhabitants have been displaced, more than 70,000 people emmigrated and fled outside Myanmar, and over 34,000 objects of civilian infrastrucutre (e.g. houses, hospitals, schools, and religious places) have been destroyed (OHCHR, 2023). The Myanmar population was faced with rising costs of living (e.g. food and housing), increased unemployment rates, disrupted supply chains, new international sanctions, food scarcity, and a fear of the arbitrariness of the military regime (DW, 2022; Linn, 2022) The impact of this coup d’état on IT infrastructure and IT accessibility in Myanmar was substantial: The military cut off or slowed down internet connections and mobile data networks, blocked social media and communication websites, and carried out widespread censorship (Padmanabhan et al., 2021; Srinivasan et al., 2022). Furthermore, the impact on the IT disruptions on Myanmar educational system was severe. The demand for online learning resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic was compounded by the military's destruction of schools and could not be sufficiently satisfied.

These two quasi-simultaneous national crises of the Covid-19 pandemic and the 2021 coup d’état mutually reinforced one another and led to major disruptions in the educational system and to the country's IT infrastructure.

The crises are a unique, rare phenomenon, which allow us an opportunity to observe and investigate how social and political disruptions could impact the level of digital inequalities in the form of digital divide which is the limitation of the access to IT resources among Myanmar citizens.

Digital divide was considered the problem of accessibility to IT, particularly the internet; however, it has been expanded to involve problems not only accessiblity gaps but also user gaps and knowledge gaps, which are the consequences of inaccessiblity to IT resources (Liao et al., 2022). This has led to the term digital inequailty, which focuses on the consequences of the inaccessiblity and incapability of using IT. Digital inequality has been one of the major challenges facing the world (UN, 2020). As digital divide and inequality is complex and varies across different contexts, there is still a big gap in the current literature (Imran, 2022). Existing literature (e.g., Beaunoyer et al., 2020; Liao et al., 2022) addresses the need for more studies on the impact of COVID-19 on digital divide and inequality. Particularly, when online learning is required, digital divide gaps become even wider. Those having limited access or less skills to use ICT will be impacted stronger than those having better accessibility and skills (Mathrani et al., 2022). Furthermore, during online learning and social distancing, health and well-being of students could be affected. On one hand, IT can help them remain connected and not feeling too lonely; on the other hand, the extensive use of IT can create stress and cause depression. Thus, digital divide in the context of online learning should be further investigated, especially to understand its impact and to explore how to decrease the gap and inequality.

Aiming to contribute to the above mentioned literature gap, this paper explores impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic and the military coup in Myanmar on the digital inequality concerning online learning and well-being of students in the country, by asking the following research questions:

• 1)How was the online learning situation in Myanmar during the national crises?
• 2)What was the role and impacts of IT on the learning and well-being of students in Myanmar during the national crises?

This research aims to offer insights into how the social and political crises impact the already existing digital divide gap and how they are generating further inequality. Additionally, it explores whether the higher usage of IT could reduce the gap and inequality. To answer the research questions, the following sections will review the relevant literature, propose a conceptual framework, outline the research method, and discuss findings, conclusions and implications.

2. Literature review

2.1. Myanmar's education system, digital infrastructure and digital literacy

Myanmar is a mainland Southeast Asian country. It is a member state of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). The vast majority (∼70%) of its 54 million population resides in rural areas (Statista, 2022a). The population consists of at least 135 distinct ethnic groups. The main groups are Burman (Bamar) people (68%), Shan people (9%), and Karen people (7%). Besides the official Burmese language, these ethnic groups also use their own languages (Htung, 2022). Most Burmese people are Buddhists (88%) (CIA, 2022). The Burmese economy faced severe issues in 2021 with a declining gross domestic product (GDP) of minus 18.4% and a rising inflation rate of 3.6% (ADB, 2022a; ADB, 2022b). According to the 2022 World Happiness Report, which measured how people in various countries evaluate their living situations, Myanmar ranked 126 among 146 countries, the lowest position of all ASEAN countries (Helliwell et al., 2022; Thailand, 2022).

The education system in Myanmar consists of six years of primary, three years of lower secondary and two years of upper secondary education. The majority of schools in Myanmar were managed by the Department of Basic Education under the Ministry of Education (Afeo.org, 2018). The primary school is compulsory; thus, a rate of enrollment in primary schools is high. However, only around half of the students complete the primary school (Shah & Lopes Cardozo, 2019). According to Shah and Lopes Cardozo (2019), the Burmese education system has been plagued with several problems, such as instability of the country, chronic underfunding, and inequality of access to education, resources, and IT.

Myanmar is one of the lowest ranked countries in ASEAN in respect of the four indicators of digital readiness, including ICT development, e-government development, network readiness and cybersecurity (oxfordbusinessgroup, 2020). According to a Telenor report (Telenor, 2018), the mobile broadband penetration in the country is as high as 90%, but almost 80% of those users have poor digital literacy skills. Ridout et al. (2020) also mentioned that Myanmar users were susceptible to disinformation campaigns and hate speech due to their lack of digital literacy. Poveda Villalba (2018) reported that the country's internal constraints, such as censorship and government's authority, have limited teachers and students' learning behaviors. Limited access to computer and the internet was found a common problem not only in schools but also in universities (Machmud et al., 2021).

Furthermore, an adequate speed of internet connection, which is the minimum technical requirement needed to achieve sufficient and effective online learning, was also reported as lacking. An evaluation of the internet speed in different ASEAN countries in the year 2014 revealed that the internet speed in Myanmar is significantly below the average speed of all other ASEAN countries: far behind the speeds of Thailand and Vietnam, and also behind Cambodia and Malaysia, but still before Indonesia, Laos, and the Philippines (Magdirila, 2014; ThaiTech, 2015). A comparable evaluation led to the conclusion that the broadband internet speed in Myanmar was the worst among all ASEAN countries. For mobile internet speed, Myanmar had the second-worst speed (ASEAN Information Center, 2021).

These evidences highlight the digital divide (accessibilitiy and incapability to use IT) problems of the country. Without a reliable and stable internet access, online learning during COVID-19 or after the coup d’état is facing challenges. This research; therefore, aims to unfold the learning situation in Myanmar during the national crises to better understand the impacts of the crises on the students' learning.

2.2. An increase in digital divide in the Burmese educational system due to the national crises

The existing digital divide and inequality problems in Myanmar were worsen by the hit of COVID-19 pandemic and the 2021 coup d’état. With the COVID-19 pandamic persisted, schools were temporarily closed. Partially distance learning was implemented to increase social distancing (Soe, 2020). To conduct distance learning, certain IT requirements (hardware, software, internet connection) and IT skills are required (Lassoued et al., 2020), such as newer computers with update softwares such as Zoom or mobile devices with a microphone, speakers, webcams, printers or scanners. A stable internet connection is needed. However, acess to these basic IT requirements had been limited in Myanamar even before COVID-19.

In addition, the effects of the coup d’état on the country's educational system have been severe. In many cases, families have had to flee from their villages. Educational staff and facilities have been targets of attack. The situation has left both teachers and students frightened to go to school, fearful of encountering explosions, shootings, and attacks (Mendelson, 2021). Moreover, ethical questions arose among educational staff regarding whether returning to work would be tantamount to supporting the coup d’état (Htut et al., 2022). As a consequence, many teachers and students are partly boycotting the educational system. The Burmese military sees education as a way to “teach young people to respect the military and its position” (Lall, 2021). “I don't want to graduate in a military system, especially one that isn't recognized internationally,” a former student describes as the reason he decided to end his studies (Mendelson, 2021). A different student raises the question, “How can we go to school under a military government that has killed hundreds of people and continues firing [at protesters]?” (Bangkok Post, 2021).

While the request to conduct online learning resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic had already increased the need for IT usage in education, the need was further highlighted when the nation's educational infrastructure, such as schools, was partly destroyed by the military. Moreover, teachers and students were unable or unwilling to return to school, as many were injured, frightened, or sought to boycott the government's education system. The military regime did not provide support or resources for the increased IT demand, but rather implemented actions that further increased the digital divide in education. The research institute Asia Centre (2021) and others have documented and reported several temporary and ongoing disruptions to Burmese IT infrastructure since the coup d’état. Examples include the severing of landline telephone connections, disruptions to television broadcasting, slow-downs and shutdowns of internet and mobile data networks, restrictions to public WIFI networks, and the implementation of ‘internet curfews’, which shut down the internet daily for a defined time, e.g. night-time. (Bhattacharya & Raghuvanshil, 2021). There are signs of the general control the military exercises over the country's access to the internet, including access to digital content, and the routing of IP addresses and domains (Padmanabhan et al., 2021). The research institute Asia Centre (2021) has claimed the military regime has blocked certain websites (e.g. Facebook, Wikipedia).

Several media and telcos companies voices their concerns on the disruption in IT infrastruture within the country. The telecommunication provider, Telenor Group, operating in Myanmar announced their concerns about the restrictions ordered by the regime on their website (Telenor Group, 2022). Facebook also expressed its serious concerns publicly (Meta, 2021). Besides the limited freedom of speech and exchange of information, these disruptions have had a negative impact on the economy of the country. By having internet curfews mainly at night, the military has tried to limit this impact on private people and to enable businesses to continue operating during the daytime (Padmanabhan et al., 2021; Srinivasan et al., 2022). These actions have caused negative effects on the population's ability and capacity for online learning.

As highlighted, the need for distance learning in Myanmar has increased, yet the requirements to guarantee access to distance learning have been disrupted. While the need for IT has increased in education, the country's IT infrastructure has been disrupted by the military. Thus, an increasing digital divide in the nation's educational system is the result.

2.3. Digital divide: access, capability, and outcomes

Digital divide and inequality are broadly conceived as the inability of individuals or groups to gain benefits from digital technologies (Robinson et al., 2020). As digital technologies have been integrated in almost all aspects of the daily life, the consequences of the inability to gain benefits from digital technology can be tremendous. Thus, digital divide problems do not concern inaccessibility to only information but also other services, such as entertainment, education, and healthcare. With social distancing being enforced, the inaccessibility to the internet could also mean an inability to maintain connection and relationship with friends and families. Furthermore, with the advancement of digital technology, digital skills are needed so that everyone can fully benefit from the technology or achieve the best possible outcomes of the technology usage (Liao et al., 2022; Wei et al., 2011).

During and after the COVID-19 pandemic, the digital divide in access to education and healthcare have received much attention from scholars as they are two services that were performed mainly in a digital form. Clinics had to use telemedicine solutions, causing inequality especially for those with limited access to the internet or limited digital skills (Ramsetty & Adams, 2020). Education around the world was moved to online to achieve social distancing. Teachers and students, particularly those who did not have a computer at home and were not able to access the internet from home were struggling (Correia, 2020). While digital skills are highly important to bridge the digital divide in education, prior studies on the impact of COVID-19 on digital divide in education have focused on the problem of accessibility to IT resources and the outcomes of the digital divide. Few studies have considered digital skills required to engage students in online learning (Coleman, 2021).

For this research, we attempt to explore the three levels of digital divide and highlight the interdependence among them, which makes the digital divide so complex. The three levels of the digital divide (Gómez, 2018; Wei et al., 2011) can be described as (see Fig. 1 ):

• 1.Digital Access Divide: IT is inaccessible or cannot sufficiently be obtained. The main reasons are the lack of technical requirements (especially sufficient internet connections and hardware). Not having physical access to these resources leads to inequalities.
• 2.Digital Capability Divide: IT cannot be used sufficiently as there are gaps in the needed IT skills, the motivation, or the emotions of a person. These gaps again lead to inequalities, even in cases when IT is physically available.
• 3.Digital Outcome Divide: IT can be accessed and used. Nevertheless, the (offline) outcome and benefits of IT usage lead to an inferior outcome compared to other persons. These different outcomes lead to inequalities.

Fig. 1.

Different levels of the Burmese digital divide in the context of individual and organizational status, influenced by the latest disruptions from the pandemic and the military coup (own figure, partly based on Gómez, 2018 and Wei et al., 2011).

3. Method

To unfold the complex phenomena of digital divide in Myanmar and the impact of the national crises on the digital divide, a case study method is adopted. Both the COVID-19 pandemic and the 2021 coup d’état are unique events that are characterized by a high level of uncertainty and major changes. Secondary literature is available and has been described in the previous section. Nevertheless, the novelty of the topic, the uniqueness of the events, and the ongoing changes make it necessary to gain and evaluate additional and newer primary data. The uniqueness of the phenomenon suggests the usage of the case study research method (Yin, 2011), as it provides a comprehensive and efficient opportunity to collect and analyze primary data. This new data enables the description and deeper understanding of a unique, novel, and ongoing phenomenon.

Framed by the goal to explore the three levels of digital divide, this study considered students (individuals) our unit of analysis. Focus was put on the accessibility and capability of students in Myanmar and the outcomes (e.g. ability to connect with teachers and friends, knowledge) that can be achieved by the students. To develop a comprehensive understanding of the phenomena, the study was divided into two phases of data collection, including primary data collection from students and experts. Data from the latter group was used to triangulate the data from the first group, thus increasing validity of the research (Yin, 2011).

3.1. Research conceptual framework

The research conceptual framework is developed based on the discussion of the three levels of the digital divide by Gómez (2018) and Wei et al. (2011). Fig. 1 depicts the three levels of digital divide in the context of Myanmar, namely access to IT resources during the national crises in order to learn (Level 1: Digital Access Divide), the IT skills required for online learning (Level 2: Digital Capability Divide), and the outcomes of IT usage for students in Myanmar (Level 3: Digital Outcome Divide). The two national crises have impacted the country and severely deepened the divide in all three levels. The concept of the three interrelated levels of digital divide will be applied as a theorectical lens to unfold the complex situation of digital divide in online learning in Myanmar during the national crises (RQ1) and how IT can be used for supporting the well-being of students in Myanmar during the crises (RQ2).

3.2. Primary data from students in Myanmar using online questionnaires

Based on the primary research questions, sub-questions for a questionnaire have been defined. They have been grouped into categories exploring different aspects, such as questions about the availability of hardware (computers, notebooks, tablets, smartphones, printers, scanners), questions about the usage of different kinds of software (especially online applications), questions regarding experience with various learning methods, questions about the well-being of students, and finally some statistical questions for evaluation and filtering. The questions aimed to cover all three levels of the digital divide, including 1) Digital Access Divide, 2) Digital Capability Divide, and 3) Digital Outcome Divide (Gómez, 2018; Wei et al., 2011). Depending on the focus of the question, different answering options were given: open answers providing the students the chance to freely answer by providing a short textual response, and closed answers with either multiple choice or rating scale options.

After grouping the questions into the categories described above, they have been translated by experienced native speakers into Burmese and Shan languages. Both translators additionally have teaching and research experience. The translations have been counterchecked by other native speakers of the relevant languages. The answer possibilities have not been coded, but grouped in a way providing the relevant data to answer the research questions. To be able to disseminate the questionnaire in a swift and cost-effective way, and to gain an efficient way of analyzing collected data, the questionnaire has been created as an online form.

As the relevant peer group, people matching the following characteristics have been defined and approached via teachers, social media, personal networks, and NGOs:

• ●Being of Burmese origin (belonging to any ethnic group)
• ●Living in Myanmar or abroad
• ●Being a student, aged 13 years–25 years (secondary or high school, university, or non-formal education) or a potential student

3.3. Primary data from experts on Myanmar using interviews

For this research, a total of eight expert stakeholders have been interviewed in-depth using a set of open-ended semi-structured questions. The experts have been selected by a process of identifying potential participants able to provide knowledge “not accessible to anybody in the field of action under study” (Meuser & Nagel, 2009) as they are directly involved in the research field in different ways. Moreover, they have been chosen because of their education-related credentials, experience, and ability to offer a broad perspective of the research field: educational staff from Burmese governmental schools and from Burmese private schools, as well as teachers working in Myanmar and teachers working with students from Myanmar abroad. Additionally, experts on Burmese culture, refugee/migrant issues, and ethnic groups have been interviewed. Moreover, experts on issues related to physical and mental/emotional health were identified and interviewed. This broad variety of experts made it possible to gain a wide range of data and evaluations, increasing the reliability and generalizability of the results. An anonymized list of participants and their main areas of expertise can be found in Table 1 .

Table 1.

List of interviewed expert stakeholders and their main fields of contribution.

Expert Interview # (EI-xx)	Professional background of expert:	Providing expert knowledge, especially in the fields of:
EI-01	Headteacher for students from Myanmar living in Thailand	●Burmese culture and education ●Ethnic group issues, especially for Shan people
EI-02	English teacher for students from Myanmar living in Thailand	●Burmese culture and education ●Ethnic group issues, especially for Shan people
EI-03	Teacher for Shan students living in a refugee camp in Thailand	●Burmese culture and education ●Teaching refugees ●Teaching ethnic minorities ●Teaching abroad
EI-04	Burmese junior Mental Health Counselor	●Mental health of students in Myanmar
EI-05	Teacher at private school in Myanmar	●Burmese culture and education ●Teaching at a private school during the crises
EI-06	Director and teacher of school in Myanmar	●Burmese culture and education ●Coordinating and teaching at a Burmese school during the crises
EI-07	Burmese Medical Doctor, specializing in psychiatry and mental Health	●Health situation in Myanmar ●Psychiatric effects of the crises on students
EI-08	Social Worker; Founder and Director of an NGO supporting Burmese education and culture abroad	●Burmese culture and education ●Burmese refugee issues ●Health and emotional issues

All interviews were conducted after the closing of the online questionnaire. The experts were sent the questions from the questionnaire and the collected responses were provided as tables containing the raw data. For each interview, a date and timeframe (1 h) were agreed upon with the expert. All interviews were conducted online through Zoom. The experts were informed about the background of the research and that their comments from the interviews may be used in research and be published in an academic paper. In all cases, anonymity was agreed to. For documentation purposes, the interviews were recorded with the consent of the experts. The recordings followed recommendations for qualitative interviews summarized by Alsaawi (2014); the recordings allow for a deeper analysis, enable listening to the interviews again, make it possible to share with other researchers for extended evaluations, reduce risks of bias, and enable potential use for other research projects.

3.4. Research ethics

As students and migrants are involved in this research, special focus and attention were drawn to ethical aspects: All participants were informed that they are taking part in research work. Moreover, the name of the institution performing this research and the research aim was indicated. Additionally, it has been clearly highlighted, that participation in this research is fully voluntary and that every participant could end the questionnaire at any time without giving a reason and without fearing any negative consequences. All questions were designed to meet students' requirements and additionally, every question had an option to not provide an answer. The questions have been reviewed by researchers experienced in similar surveys involving students. All data was collected anonymously. Emergency telephone numbers and information to a supporting website in the local language have been provided for every participant. The research has been evaluated and approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of the authors’ university.

4. Results

4.1. Demographic data

In total, 123 completed questionnaires have been received and evaluated. This quantity of data (factor 4.1 = 30 questions and 123 responses) can be assumed as significant and a good basis for gaining reliability and generalizability of the results. Of these answers, 64% came from secondary-school students and 13% from university or college students. Most answers came from the Yangon district (41%) and from Shan State (27%). 69% answered in Burmese language, whereas 31% preferred to answer in Shan language. 34% of survey answers were received during a one-week stay of the researcher in a Burmese refugee camp located in Thailand. 22% of the surveys came from participants opting to choose the telephone-assisted survey, which helped to provide access to participants who would otherwise not have a chance to join as described in the previous section (technical, emotional, systematic or language barriers). 44% of the surveys were received online.

The background of participating students can be divided into three groups based on the answering channel (See Table 2 ). Table 3 summarized their background relevant to digital access and skills. Overall, a digital divide can be seen among the three groups of respondents. Those who were at the refugee camps appeared to have low digital literacy and accessibility, while those who answered the questionnaire online reported better or more sufficient access to IT resources and higher literacy.

Table 2.

Overview and break-down of completed questionnaires.

	Quantity	Percentage
Total
Number of completed questionnaires	123	100%
Education types
Schools	79	64%
Universities and colleges	16	13%
Others/no answer	28	23%
Regions
Yangon District	50	41%
Shan State	33	27%
Others/no answer	40	32%
Language
Burmese	85	69%
Shan	38	31%
Answering channel
Survey answers received during refugee camp visit	42	34%
Survey answer received by telephone call	27	22%
Survey answers received online	54	44%

Table 3.

Background of each participating group.

Group of participating students based on the answering channel	Background
Students answering at the Burmese refugee camps	•Major financial issues due to fleeing from their home country •Low language proficiency, sometimes in all the spoken languages (Burmese, Shan, Thai, English) •Low writing proficiency, sometimes no writing proficiency in major language spoken (e.g. Shan) •Very limited access to IT (no access to computers, or shared device between several family members, or have access to old/inefficient devices. •No mobile internet signal (in most areas of the refugee camps)
Students answering by assisted telephone calls	•No access to IT resources (computers and Internet) •Low IT skills/digital literacy •No reading and/or writing proficiency in one of the two languages Burmese or Shan
Students answering by online survey	•Sufficient access to IT resources (device, skills, connection) •Sufficient language and reading/writing skills in Burmese or Shan language

4.2. Findings

As mentioned earlier, this study employed the lens of three levels of digital divide to explore online learning situation in Myanmar and how it was impacted by the national crises, particularly on education and the well-being of students. In this section, the findings are grouped into 4 subsections:

• •4.2.1 Findings on the students' accessibility to IT resources (digital access divide)
• •4.2.2 Findings on IT skills and software usage of the students (digital capability divide)
• •4.2.3 Findings on effectivness of online learning for the students (digital outcome divide)
• •4.2.4 Findings on well-being of the students (digital outcome divide).

4.2.1. Findings on the students’ accessibility to IT resources

Only around 40% of students in Myanmar reported that they have access to a desktop computer, notebook, or laptop. Some experts noted even lower percentages among their students. One teacher mentioned that in Burmese education, computers are more commonly used by university students. In school education they are rather uncommon. (EI-04)

“Among my students, less than 60% have computers. All the students have smartphones. They have to share it with their siblings or they use their mother’s or father’s devices.” (EI-05)

At the same time, around 80% of these students have access to a smartphone. A teacher mentioned that nearly all students in Myanmar have access to a smartphone, as even poor families most often have at least one device in their household. Nevertheless, this device sometimes needs to be shared between many family members. (EI-05).

Another expert suggests bearing in mind that IT-access issues can still exist even when smartphones are available, as some students are only able to use very old or inexpensive, low-quality phones. These devices often do not meet technical requirements for effective online learning as they are only able to provide slow, unstable connections. (EI-06)

“Most of the people have smartphones. But these are not for learning. Most of the smartphones, from my point of view, are very cheap.” (EI-06)

Several experts stressed that for the purpose of online education, computers are superior. Smartphones cannot always provide access to needed software (especially MS Word, MS Excel, and MS PowerPoint), consist of small screens which limit the possibility to share complex graphic elements and text, and the technical stability is often inferior. Also, teachers report that students using smartphones pay less attention to class compared to students using computers. (EI-01, 02, 05, 06)

“When the students use a smartphone to study, they have issues with their attention and technical problems can occur. The small screens do not convey all the information we provide.” (EI-01)

“For online teaching, computers are much better than smartphones. But most of the students and some of the teachers do not have their own computers.” (EI-05)

The expert stakeholders confirmed that printers and scanners are rarely accessible for students in Myanmar. Students and teachers frequently utilize the services of copy shops if needed. Informal scans are often created by using the internal camera of a smartphone. (EI-01, 02, 05) One expert highlights the fact that financial resources are very limited in most families in Myanmar. Purchases need to be considered carefully. Therefore, investments are made only in IT devices defined by them as most urgently needed. Printers and scanners seem to be ranked lower in importance than computers and smartphones. (EI-04).

Asked about the need for investments in IT during the national crises, 40% of students surveyed remarked that they needed to invest in a new computer and 50% in a new smartphone. The vast majority needed to cover the costs of new technical devices themselves. Only 11% received financial support for purchasing new IT devices.

Students noted that in most cases (60%) they had good internet connections at home, as well as good connections in schools (50%) and good access to mobile data (74%). Experts noted their surprise about these positive results:

“I am not sure if the students understood ‘access to internet’ as access available 24/7, or just a few days a week, or just a few days a month.” (EI-01)

Other attempts to explain these unexpected results are that the students have probably never had the chance to access stable and reliable high-speed internet connections that meet global standards. Therefore, the positive evaluation of the students might not be truly representative. Moreover, students with very poor or no internet connections likely did not have the technical opportunity to participate in this online survey. Unreported numbers would be the consequence. (EI-07) Additionally, the indirect regional focus of the survey might have had an effect. By having a questionnaire available in the two most widely spoken languages, 75% of the population could be reached. Nevertheless, many ethnic groups in rural areas speaking different languages might have a lower quality of internet or no access at all. These numbers are likely unrepresented here. (EI-04 & 05).

A quarter of all students mentioned that the quality of their internet connections decreased following the coup d'état. Even more severe security issues were highlighted: 60% feel less safe using the internet since the coup d'état, leading to a rate of 63% of students choosing to use Virtual Private Networks (VPN). By hiding IP addresses and encrypting communication, VPN connections are a way of increasing internet security. The identity of the internet user remains protected and the data stays unreadable until reaching its final destination. (House & Radu, 2020) Experts confirm the vast usage of VPN connections in the country, both among students as well as among teachers. By using VPNs, websites blocked by the military regime can be accessed again. Moreover, it is more difficult for unauthorized parties to access private data or to read private messages stored on a VPN. (EI-01, 02)

“Before the coup, we could say that we had sufficient internet access for online teaching. But since February 2021, the internet, especially in Chin State, is cut off. Only in the capital of Chin State, in Hakha, do we have internet. And even if it is available in Hakha, it is not as good as before.” (EI-05)

Experts emphasized the situation of having fewer options when it comes to internet providers. In some areas only one provider is available. (EI-05).

The students shared which locations they used if internet connections were not accessible at their homes. The main locations include the houses of other family members, restaurants and cafes, or WIFI shops. An expert points out that free WIFI in public places, restaurants, and cafes, and shopping malls is not as common as in other countries, e.g. as it is in Thailand (EI-01 & 02)

“Inside Myanmar, we can see that many businesses are still not providing free WIFI yet like in Thailand. Many of our students in Myanmar need to pay by themselves for their internet costs because they have no other choice. In Thailand, some cafes, laundry shops, and some restaurants provide free internet.” (EI-01)

4.3. Findings on IT skills and software usage of the students in Myanmar

Students in Myanmar classified their skills to use computers in the midrange (average: 3.3 of 5; 1 = bad; 5 = good). The evaluation was higher when asking for their skills for the usage of smartphones (average: 4.0 of 5). This corresponds to the availability of the IT devices described in the previous section.

Experts confirmed this correlation between the low availability of computers and lower computer skills. Most students were inexperienced in using computers, as these devices were not available in their households or in their schools. Moreover, a major difference between students in the cities and students in rural areas was described as: (EI-01, 02, 06)

“Students living in the town are more skilled in IT compared to students from the villages, which have limited internet access.” (EI-06)

If students need technical support, their sources of support are mainly their family (∼60%), their teacher (∼40%), or other sources of help (∼35%). Despite these numbers, several experts assumed that a high number of students in many cases did not receive the technical support they actually needed. Teachers and parents belonged to an older generation, which often had lower IT skills compared to their students or children. Moreover, teachers themselves were often not schooled and are not prepared to provide such kinds of support. In many cases, they were struggling themselves and seeking help.

“I do not feel there is enough support from the teachers. Most of the teachers are not good at using computers themselves. High school students are often better than the teachers with such technical questions.” (EI-05)

Two cultural aspects must also be taken into consideration. First, in the traditional local culture it was not so common that a student raised questions or requested support without it being offered. Secondly, many parents did not see the need to support their children's education. Traditionally, children in Myanmar started to work at an early age and thereby contribute to the family's finances. (EI-01, 02,06)

“In Burmese schools we do not normally ask anything from the teacher. We do not ask questions. So, the teacher also does not encourage students to ask any questions.” (EI-06)

“Most of the parents do not really support [their children] in education.” (EI-06)

“When we look at the Shan State or at Myanmar, survival is more important than learning. For students who are getting old enough to work, the parents force or encourage them to quit school to earn money.” (EI-06)

The most commonly used applications (apps) to learn online by students in Myanmar were Zoom (79%) and Google Classroom/Google Meet (56%). All other apps were of low relevance. An expert described attempts to use MS Teams, as it offered many additional functions. However, both students and teachers found it excessively complicated, which encouraged them to return to the original apps (EI-01, 02). Significant was the low relevance of other educational apps in Myanmar commonly used in education in other countries, for example, quiz apps, learning apps, or subject-related learning apps. Experts confirmed this. Besides using apps for scheduling and facilitating online meetings, the usage of additional apps or features was rather uncommon in Myanmar. Stakeholders highlighted that the relatively low availability and quality of IT devices, low internet speed, and missing knowledge about such apps were the main reasons for this situation (EI-01, 02, 04, 05).

“I have tried two or three (educational) applications. They are very effective for younger students. But the students cannot follow because of their devices and their internet connections. Mostly because of their devices. Even if they have downloaded the application, their smartphone cannot handle it.” (EI-05)

“These other apps were not introduced or explained to us. We were not encouraged to use them. So, we used what we know.” (EI-08)

One expert additionally highlighted an issue in the usage of apps for ethnic groups in Myanmar: nearly all apps were only available in English or in Burmese language, as this was set as the standard default language for Myanmar. Apps in the around 150 other languages spoken in Myanmar were hardly available. A teacher from Shan State explained the consequences: if the students cannot read the letters used in the app and cannot understand the language provided, the app is fully inaccessible for them. (EI-01)

“Some Shan people cannot read Burmese, and also not English. This makes it difficult for them to use a computer.” (EI-01)

4.4. Findings on effectivness of online learning for the students in Myanmar

Doubts about the quality of learning in Myanmar during the COVID-19 pandemic and since the coup d’état have been discussed previously (Oo, 2020). When consulting students in Myanmar, 55% confirmed that they learned more effectively before the pandemic. 70% remarked that they learned better onsite compared to online. Also, 70% shared that they participated more in class while being onsite.

Experts confirmed these findings. Teachers reported that students were easily disrupted and very passive in online classes, but they appeared to pay more attention and participate more robustly in onsite classes. Students were able to raise questions more easily, and teachers were able to explain topics more efficiently while learning together onsite. (EI-01, 02, 03, 06)

“When you are sitting in the classroom, you are directly facing people. You pay more attention to things. When we are using the very small screen [on smartphones], our concentration is not strong enough. If someone passes by or you hear something, your attention gets disrupted. If we stay in the classroom, everything is closed, and we focus on studying.” (EI-01)

“When you are in the class you are surrounded by the class environment and are more motivated.” (EI-02)

One expert stressed the need to monitor the participation of each student closely and to actively integrate the quieter students and stimulate them for active participation. During classes, this expert referred to a hardcopy list of all students. By marking the active students, he produced a simple overview with which to focus on the less engaged students (EI-08).

Besides these critical evaluations of IT in learning methods, both teachers and students also mentioned positive effects of online learning during the national crises, including being able to learn (or teach) from various types of locations (assuming a sufficient internet connection is available), and no need to travel to an onsite location (ecological, economic, stress, and timing benefits). One expert saw major benefits due to IT usage and summarized them as follows: (EI-05).

• ●Teachers and students gained new or additional IT skills
• ●Teachers learned new forms of teaching
• ●Students mastered new ways of learning

“Our IT skills have improved very much since the pandemic because we needed to teach online. So, we needed to try very hard. We learned more ‘how to teach’ than ‘what we teach’. Our teaching methods have improved. And the students are also improving their learning and IT skills (EI-05).

4.5. Findings on the well-being of the students in Myanmar

In addition to exploring the technical and educational perspectives of the national crises, this research made an effort to examine the mental health perspective to better understand how students in Myanmar were feeling and how they have been coping with the double burden.

The data from the questionnaire revealed that 40% of students in Myanmar felt discontent. Using an option for open answers in the questionnaire, the students listed the issues they were worried, including fears of insecurity, health issues, educational instability, and economic worries. Besides strong claims of struggling with worries, fears, and feelings of hopelessness, some students found positive things to mention, including the ability to spend more time with their family, additional spare time in general, and no need to commute.

“It is true. 40%, maybe even 60% (feel depressed). I would not be surprised. The entire country has not only been suffering from COVID-19 but also from the coup d’ etat. A double crisis. So, depression is common.” (EI-04)

“I expected even higher numbers than this. Because there are many reasons to be stressed and under pressure. The financial situation. The employment situation. Just seeing the news on social media can make you feel stressed.” (EI-07)

Several experts mentioned that they had expected higher percentages of students reporting not feeling well and many suspect higher unreported numbers. These experts explained the anticipated outcomes in light of the many understandable reasons to be depressed, lonely, stressed, or under pressure in today's Myanmar: security, economic, health, and educational issues, along with a very unclear future (EI-01, 02, 03, 07). Experts remarked that potentially being near the end of the national crises gave the students hope and led them to a more positive evaluation of their situation. Also shame of admitting feelings might be an issue. Additionally, the strong cohesion in families in Myanmar and generally among Burmese people was mentioned several times, which may have helped increase students' resilience during these difficult phases. (IE-04).

A Burmese medical doctor specializing in mental health issues highlighted that the online questionnaire reached only students who had access to the internet. The internet could provide them with additional resources for addressing mental health issues; besides, information, advice, and support could be accessed online. Students without access may therefore have more issues but were underrepresented here, as they had no opportunity to complete the online survey. (EI-07)

“Being able to access the internet means you are privileged and have more opportunities compared to those who have no internet. This can have effects on ‘being lonely’. When you have internet, you can connect to other people and talk to your friends.” (EI-07)

When asking the students in Myanmar where they received support when not feeling well during these national crises, most students mentioned their family (57%), their friends (54%), their teachers (37%), social media websites (26%), and other sources (25%).

“As a teacher, we did not receive good mental support, so it is hard for the teacher to give mental support to the students too. We also think it is not good to give mental support to our students. Most of the teachers cannot provide this. We can think about what we are teaching. The lessons. The textbook. We only focus on the teaching. Sometimes we neglect mental issues.” (EI-05)

Table 4 summarizes the key findings from the students’ survey responses and the experts' in-depth interviews. The two research questions are addressed. Together, the research questions reflect and link to the global issues of digital divide and how it is impacted by the COVID-19 pandemic (as well as the military coup in case of Myanmar).

Table 4.

Summary of key findings from surveys with students and the expert's evaluation for each research question.

Research Question	Finding from Student's Survey	Expert's Evaluation
RQ1: How was online learning situation in Myanmar during the national crises?	Digital accessibility divide: ●40% have access to a desktop computer, notebook, or laptop ●80% have access to a smartphone ●60% have good internet access	EI-01, 02, 05, 06: ●Computers are superior for online learning ●Smartphones provide only limited access to software and graphics and are often less stable EI-04, 05, 07: ●Evaluation of good internet access doubted
	Digital capability divide: ●skills to use computers in the midrange ● sources of support were: o family (∼60%) o teacher (∼40%) o others (∼35%).	EI-01, 02, 06: ●Confirmation of midrange of skills to use computers ●Issues seen in support from family and teachers as they were often unskilled themselves
RQ2: What was the role and impacts of IT on the learning and well-being of students in Myanmar during the national crises?	IT in learning methods and its outcome for students in Myanmar: ●55% learned better before the pandemic ●70% learned better onsite ●70% participate more in class when being onsite	EI-01,02, 03, 06: ●Confirmation of students' evaluation ●Students were often disrupted and passive in online classes
	IT usage supporting the well-being of students in Myanmar: ●40% feel depressed ●33% feel lonely ●45% feel stressed and under pressure ●20% feel hopeless ●20% consulted a doctor because of not feeling well	EI-01,02, 03, 07: ●Even higher percentages of students with emotional issues were expected ●Assume underreported numbers EI-07: ●Students having internet access can be seen as privileged from a well-being perspective. This may have influenced the results, as students without internet remain underrepresented.

5. Discussion & conclusion

5.1. Discussion

To explore the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic and the military coup in Myanmar on the digital divide and inequality concerning online learning and well-being of students in the country, this research raised the following research questions:

• 1)How was the online learning situation in Myanmar during the national crises?
• 2)What was the role and impacts of IT on the learning and the well-being of students in Myanmar during the national crises?

Regarding the online learning situation during the national crises, our findings show that the students in Myanmar were not able to achieve effective learning through IT during the national crises. In terms of digital accessiblity, more than half of the students surveyed did not have access to a computer. Access to a smartphone was significantly higher, but as confirmed by several experts, learning using smartphones was less practical. Fewer activities were possible with a lower interaction level, and technical stability was inferior. This effect was strengthened by the fact that common and accessible smartphones for students in Myanmar were often not state-of-the-art models and were of lower quality. Although Internet connections were accessible to most students, the quality of the internet connection was doubted by all stakeholders. However the quality of the internet access in terms of both speed and stability is important (Lassoued et al., 2020). Without high-speed internet, interactions can be limited. For example, the usage of a live camera requires high-speed internet, and without having camera on, two-way communication is less effecitve, as teachers are not able to interact or see the facial responses of students (Mader & Ming, 2015).

In terms of digital skills or capability, the level of the students’ IT skills required to effectively use a computer and online learning has been identified as being in the midrange. Taking into consideration the low accessibility to computers among students, the unreported level of IT skills may even be lower. However, the existing literature has confirmed that digital self-efficacy is an important antecedent of effective online learning (Zheng et al., 2020). Students who possesses higher digital skills are more comfortable using new technologies, such as online learning system, and thus are able to achieve higher benefits and effectivness of online learning (Kwiatkowska & Wiśniewska-Nogaj, 2022). Limited supports were also reported by the students. Our findings show that family members and teachers were often unable to support, as their own IT skills were also insufficient. Additionally, parents did not in all cases see the need for education, and there was a cultural tradition in which students were not encouraged to ask questions. Lack of supports was one of the major drawbacks to effective online learing (Hsu et al., 2018). In fact, Hung and Chou (2015) pointed out that for online learning students expected that their instructors would not only be discussion facilitators but also social supporters and technology facilitators.

Regarding the impacts on the learning and well-being of students, our findings show that IT helped the students in Myanmar sustain or improve their well-being. Positive effects of mobile internet usage on the well-being and life satisfaction has also been evidenced in prior studies, such as Bartikowski et al. (2018). A significant number of students described issues related to their well-being during the national crises, including feeling discontent and struggling with stress. However, around one-fourth of these students highlighted that they found support for managing emotional situations by using IT, particularly by interacting with others via social media websites and apps. A medical expert for mental issues also highlighted that having access to IT is supportive of the well-being of the students in Myanmar during these national crises. The Internet allowed them to find information about health topics, interact with others to discuss problems and potential solutions, share their emotions, and locate contacts for further assistance. This access to IT made them a privileged group among other students in Myanmar, and helped them to master issues of well-being. The finding corresponds with Beaunoyer et al. (2020) who pointed out that accessibility and use digital technology could impact physical, mental, and social health and help individuals maintain their health and wellbeing.

5.2. Limitations

The limitations of this research are the sample size of the survey and its regional focus resulting from using only two of the many spoken languages of Myanmar. The fact that there are several minor groups living in the country and using different written and spoken languages limited our ability to communicate and thus access to representatives of every ethnic groups. Moreover, while one part of the data came from online questionnaires, it may have potentially prevented students who did not have access to the internet from participating in this researh. However, efforts were made to access some respondents via other methods, such as paper-based and telephone-based surveys. Missing, incomplete, and potentially biased official statistics from official entities in Myanmar posed some difficulties and increased the need of the researchers to rely on other sources, including information from NGOs, private organizations, and newspaper articles. The timeliness and the topicality of this research increased this issue. Furthermore, the ongoing nature of the national crises made the work of the researchers more challenging. For example, research assistants inside Myanmar feared negative consequences (e.g. imprisonment) as a result of their work. Researchers abroad had no opportunity to travel into the country to conduct field research.

5.3. Theoretical and practical implications

Theoretically, this research addresses the need for more studies on the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the digital divide (Beaunoyer et al., 2020; Liao et al., 2022). While the digital divide has been acknowledged as a complex social problem, previous studies usually looked at only specific parts of the phenomenon as if it is a stand-alone problem. For example, Mathrani et al. (2022) considered only the infrastructural and societal impacts on the accessibility to online learning resources.Correia (2020) focused on digital skills required for effective online learning given limited access to high speed internet. This study adds to an attempt of Liao et al. (2022) to understand the digital divide as a trajectory over time. Thus, by integrating the three levels of digital divide and highlighting the interdependence among the three levels, the conceptual framework of this research unfolds the complexity of this social problem and highlight that digital accessibility, capability (including users’ skills), and outcomes needed to be planned together. The absence of one level can negatively impact the others and create even wider gaps and inequalities. This can be seen, for example, when online learning was suddenly being enforced, the absence of digital skills/literacy in students as well as teachers made the inequalities become much wider between those who possessed the skills and those who did not; besides, the gaps of realized outcomes were wider too.

Practically, the investigation of the interdependence of the three levels of digital divide have enaabled this research to propose more holistic suggestions for not only policy makers but also other stakeholders including teachers, students, and even their communities and families. Based on the findings of this research, and taking into consideration the described findings from previous research, the authors would like to make the following recommendations grouped by the different stakeholders and by sorting them according to the different levels of the digital divide. In order to bridge the digital divide, Sharma and Mokhtar (2008) stressed the need for policy initiatives, such as telecommunication regulations that support a country's information and communications technology (ICT) infrastructure, raise trust in such technology, and occur simultaneously with actions to improve IT skills in society, such as creating attractive fiscal conditions to acquire and develop talent. They highlighted the importance of the state in creating “government structures (e.g. democracy, transparency, independence of judiciary and regulatory authorities)”. Tipton (2002), who analyzed the digital divide in Southeast Asia two decades ago, stated that the digital divide can be bridged more efficiently “in those countries where the state is expected to play a leading role in development.”

Mathrani et al. (2022) analyzed online learning and the digital divide with a focus on developing countries. They concluded that strategies for educational governance require initiatives and participation of all relevant stakeholders in order to gain major improvements. The public sector (state), the private sector (companies), communities, and families are described as being the relevant parties to influence the digital divide in education in a positive way. They make a distinction between ‘hard laws” (from the governmental side) and ‘soft laws’ (from the socio-cultural side). Alvarez (2021) emphasizes the requisite cooperation between the public and the private sectors to improve digital infrastructures. Liu (2021) highlights the need for actions of global policymakers to bridge the digital divide in education.

In conclusion, the increased digital divide in education for students in Myanmar can be bridged with several parallel approaches from the public and private sectors, supported by society itself. Nevertheless, it must be highlighted that successful actions to reduce this digital divide in Myanmar require strong political reforms and initiatives. Without such changes on the political side, an even larger increase in the digital divide must be assumed for the future. Table 5 summarizes the recommendations for each stakeholder at each level of digital divide.

Table 5.

Recommendations to bridge the digital divide in the Burmese education system for each stakeholder and for all levels of the digital divide.

Stakeholders	Three Levels of Digital Divide
	Level 1: Digital Access Divide(physical access to IT)	Level 2: Digital Capability Divide(IT skills or motivation)	Level 3: Digital Outcome Divide(offline IT benefits)
Public sector (state) in Myanmar	●Refrain from disrupting the existing IT infrastructure ●Reactivate and extend programs to invest in the IT infrastructure. Align investments with the private sector and communities. Define specific actions to improve the IT infrastructure in rural areas ●Create a financial (e.g. tax incentives) and legally secure environment supporting access and investments in IT ●Set up programs to increase access to computers for students, e.g government funding, budgets for schools	●Implement and support programs to raise IT skills in society, especially for educational staff and students ●Promote talent by implementing government programs and scholarships	●Explore programs to support students with potential disadvantages in their digital outcomes, e.g. students from rural areas, from families with a difficult financial background, students with learning disabilities and language disadvantages ●Support digital equality and some opportunities in society based on democratic values, human rights, transparency, financial stability, and legal certainty
Private sector (companies) in Myanmar	●Continue and extend IT-related operations in Myanmar ●As much as possible and reasonable, cooperate with the public sector ●Create a pricing structure for hardware, software, and internet access suitable for local incomes. Offer special conditions to students.	●Extend or create opportunities for students to raise their IT skills (e.g operational training, internships, company schoolings, workshops) ●Explore opportunities to implement local languages in existing software and applications	●Create work opportunities for staff members and applicants with disadvantages in their digital outcomes
Global community, international organizations, and NGOs	●Use influence on the public sector to prevent disruptions in the existing IT infrastructure in Myanmar ●Support infrastructure projects of the public and private sectors ●Explore chances for community networks to bring internet to regions across Myanmar as an additional approach to the activities of the public and private sector	●Set up or extend programs to raise IT skills (e.g. by offering schooling programs, scholarships, exchange programs)	●Give special attention to potential groups with disadvantages in their digital outcomes, e.g. when employing staff, selecting volunteers, granting scholarships, and all other kinds of programs and activities
Schools and educational institutions in Myanmar	●Improve access to IT: Invest in computers and improve internet access in schools	●Train teachers in IT usage and in basic IT support ●Train the teachers to provide basic mental health support for students ●Implement IT usage into the teaching syllabus ●Exchange ‘best-practice’ solutions with other schools ●Explore opportunities to use more diverse educational applications	●Identify students with potential negative digital outcomes ●Support and monitor such students with individual programs and support
Policymakers in the Burmese Educational System	●Respect country-specific issues in planning the IT usage (partly older devices, low-cost devices, slower connections) ●On this basis: Create a curriculum which respects the usage of IT hardware for all kinds of subjects ●Define learning aims, methods, tools and materials suitable also for online learning ●Create solutions for students not having access to IT (e.g. offline solutions, shared solutions)	●Define goals, methods and measurements to increase and monitor IT skills ●Add IT as a subject into the curriculum at an early stage of education ●Teach the use of IT in all kinds of subjects ●Offer educational solutions meeting the student's skill level by using known tools, e.g. short videos, reels, podcasts ●Define and raise the level of IT skills on the teacher's side	●Create programs and solutions for students with special needs and learning difficulties
Families in Myanmar	●Assist as much as possible to provide children access to IT ●Invest as much as possible into IT hardware and internet access ●Explore financial support opportunities, e.g. grants	●Support the changing work requirements in Myanmar. Encourage children to engage in lifelong learning and not leave school before graduation ●Support learning options as much as possible	●Encourage children to seek help when needed and encourage them to raise questions and concerns (e.g. for technical, emotional, or financial support)
Students in Myanmar	●If possible, invest in a computer to improve learning outcomes and refrain from exclusively using a smartphone for education	●Younger students: use a wide range of openly accessible online learning options (e.g. free educational websites, articles, videos) ●Older and more advanced students: use open source solutions (“flexibility and extensibility beyond what commercial solutions offer”, Pirc et al., 2015) and open innovations (information from company-outsiders used to develop or improve goods and services; Giebel, 2013) ●Use self-regulated learning options, in which learning is individually planned, performed, and monitored, and can be assisted “with the help of technologies outside the classroom” (Thae Su et al., 2021) ●Share and promote solutions among fellow students	●Invest in own IT skills as much as possible ●Build-up networks and offer support to other students ●Raise voice against digital inequalities ●Request help and support when needed (especially from resources on the internet if parents, teachers, and friends cannot provide support)

5.4. Conclusion

To better understand the impacts of COVID-19 and the military coup in Myanmar on the digital divide and inequality, this research explored three levels of digital divide in Myanmar in the context of education. The research surveyed the students in Myanmar regarding their accessibility and capability to use IT resources as well as effectiveness of their online learning during the two national crises. In-depth interviews were conducted with experts in the education context in Myanmar to reconfirm and better understand the digital divide and inequality situation. The research findings showed that the online learning in Myanmar was not effective. Students had both limited access to IT resources and limited skills to use it. However, IT was found to be helpful in connecting students with their friends, thus making them feel not too lonely during the national crises. Overall, this study highlighted that the three levels of digital divide are interrelated. The insufficient accessibility to IT resources could affect how students can improve their digital skills, and at the same time, their lack of digital skills could also impact their perceived needs for IT resources and disable them to achieve best possible benefits from using the IT resources. Thus, our study proposed that the policies and plans to decrease the digital divide gap need to be holistic instead of starting linearly at the level of accessibility to IT infrastructures and resources.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Data availability

The authors do not have permission to share data.