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. 2023 Jun 30;20(3):14791641231183634. doi: 10.1177/14791641231183634

Cardiometabolic risk factors, peripheral arterial tonometry and metformin in adults with type 1 diabetes participating in the REducing with MetfOrmin Vascular Adverse Lesions trial

David Chen 1,2, Alicia J Jenkins 1, Nicola Greenlaw 3, Katie Dudman 3, Tamsin Fernandes 4, David M Carty 4, Alun D Hughes 5, Andrzej S Januszewski 1, Coen DA Stehouwer 6, John R Petrie 3,✉
PMCID: PMC10328035  PMID: 37387358

Abstract

Background

Peripheral arterial tonometry (PAT) provides non-invasive measures of vascular health. Beneficial effects of metformin on vascular function have been reported in youth with type 1 diabetes (T1D). In the REducing with MetfOrmin Vascular Adverse Lesions (REMOVAL) trial in adults with T1D and high cardiovascular risk, we examined: (i) the extent to which routinely-measured cardiometabolic risk factors explain variance in baseline PAT; and (ii) the effects of metformin on PAT measures.

Methods

Cross-sectional univariable and multivariable analyses of baseline reactive hyperaemia index (RHI) and augmentation index (AI) (EndoPAT® (Itamar, Israel); and analysis of 36-months metformin versus placebo on vascular tonometry.

Results

In 364 adults ((mean ± SD) age 55.2 ± 8.5 years, T1D 34.0 ± 10.6 years, HbA1c 64.5 ± 9.0 mmol/mol (8.1 ± 0.8%)), RHI was 2.26 ± 0.74 and AI was 15.9 ± 19.2%. In an exhaustive search, independent associates of (i) RHI were smoking, waist circumference, systolic blood pressure and vitamin B12 (adjusted R2 = 0.11) and (ii) AI were male sex, pulse pressure, heart rate and waist circumference (adjusted R2 = 0.31). Metformin did not significantly affect RHI or AI.

Conclusion

Cardiometabolic risk factors explained only a modest proportion of variance in PAT measures of vascular health in adults with T1D and high cardiovascular risk. PAT measures were not affected by metformin.

Keywords: Augmentation index, reactive hyperaemia index, tonometry, type 1 diabetes, vascular function, metformin

Key messages

  • • In adults with T1D and high cardiovascular risk, non-invasive PAT measures of vascular health (RHI and AI) were associated with cardiometabolic risk factors, Vitamin B12 and diabetes complications

  • • However, these factors accounted for only a modest proportion of the variance in PAT measures

  • • Metformin did not affect PAT measures in the REMOVAL trial

Introduction

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in people with Type 1 diabetes (T1D). 1 Endothelial dysfunction and arterial stiffness are biomarkers that predict CVD2,3 often adversely affected in people with T1D4,5 and are also associated with microvascular complications.6–8 Abnormal vascular function has been reported to develop soon after T1D diagnosis.5,9 A range of non-invasive measures of vascular function are available that vary in cost, operator dependency and reproducibility.

The EndoPAT system (Itamar Medical, Caesarea, Israel) detects plethysmographic pressure changes in fingertips caused by the arterial pulse and translates this to peripheral arterial tone (PAT). This provides measurements of digital reactive hyperaemia index (RHI) following release of arterial occlusion (a marker of endothelial function) and augmentation index (AI) (an integrated marker of cardiovascular dysfunction related to arterial stiffness). With appropriate quality control and basic training, it can be used across sites by multiple operators and is hence suitable for assessing surrogate vascular outcomes in multicentre clinical trials. RHI by EndoPAT has been shown to correlate with flow mediated dilatation (FMD)10–12 and to predict CVD in stable but high-risk individuals.13,14 Some pharmaceutical agents and supplements including rosuvastatin, 15 ezetimibe, 16 ivabradine, 17 sildenafil 18 and L-arginine with B group vitamins 19 have been shown to improve RHI. However, the extent to which baseline values of these surrogate measures of vascular function are determined by simpler routinely-measured cardiometabolic risk factors (e g. blood pressure (BP), pulse pressure (PP), lipids) is uncertain, particularly in people with T1D. In addition, there are few data on the effects of adjunct metformin therapy on vascular tone, and specifically on RHI and AI in people with T1D, particularly adults.

REducing with MetfOrmin Vascular Adverse Lesions in type 1 diabetes (REMOVAL) was a multicentre, international placebo-controlled trial that randomised 428 adults with T1D at high cardiovascular risk to receive metformin or placebo for 36 months. Metformin did not significantly affect the primary outcome of mean carotid intima media thickness (cIMT), 20 but did reduce it in non-smokers. 21 RHI (a PAT secondary outcome measured in 85% of participants) was unchanged. 20 In a prior randomised controlled trial of 40 T1D subjects, metformin significantly improved RHI and FMD. 22 In the present analyses, we assessed: (i) the extent to which routinely-measured cardiometabolic risk factors explain baseline variance in PAT parameters; and (ii) the effect at 3-years of metformin versus placebo on previously-unreported PAT measures from the trial (including AI).

Methods

Study design and participants

REMOVAL trial participants were adults aged ≥40 years with ≥ 5-years T1D. The study protocol was approved by the West of Scotland Research Ethics Service and all site ethics committees. All participants provided written informed consent. The study design and major findings are published elsewhere.20,21,23

Vascular function

Vascular function was assessed using EndoPAT® (Itamar Medical, Caesarea, Israel) in 85% of study participants by trained personnel in 14 of 23 sites. This system measures PAT changes in the microvasculature of the fingertips pre-, during and post-brachial artery occlusion. As per manufacturer’s recommendations and trial-specific standard operating procedures, subjects were acclimatised for 20 min in a quiet, dimmed 21–24°C room before testing. A BP cuff was applied to the non-dominant arm and plethysmographic probes were attached to the index fingers of both hands of the supine participant, with any jewelry, watches and heavy or tight-fitting clothing removed. EndoPAT output was observed until there was ≥1-min of adequate signal, then after 5-min of baseline measurements, the BP cuff was rapidly inflated to 60 mmHg above SBP, or inflated further in 50 mmHg increments (up to 300 mmHg) until complete occlusion of the brachial artery was achieved as measured by the EndoPAT software. Following 5-min of measurements, the cuff was released and the post-occlusive response measured for 10-min.

EndoPAT measures were calculated by integrated software. All readings were individually quality-assured by the manufacturer (masked to treatment allocation) before entry on to the trial database. RHI, a measure of endothelial function (arbitrary units), was determined using the post-to-pre occlusion PAT signal ratio in the occluded arm, normalised to the control side and baseline vascular tone. Framingham RHI (fRHI), presented by the Framingham Heart study, was the natural log transformation of a similar index to RHI, but did not correct for baseline vascular tone and used shorter post-occlusion times (1.5- to 2-min). AI, an integrated marker of cardiovascular dysfunction reflecting arterial stiffness, was determined by analysis of baseline PAT signals. AI was also normalised to a heart rate (HR) of 75 beats per minute to calculate AI @75.

Kidney function

Estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) was calculated from locally-measured serum creatinine using the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease (MDRD) Study equation. 24 Albuminuria was assessed using at least two separate urine specimens and routinely available assays. 23

Statistical analysis

In this exploratory post-hoc analysis of the REMOVAL trial, baseline characteristics are presented for all participants with PAT data and categorised into tertiles based on our data distribution for: (a) baseline RHI; and (b) baseline AI. Comparisons were made across each of the ordered groups using Mantel-Haenszel ordered test for categorical variables, linear trend tests (via simple linear regression) for normally distributed continuous variables and the Jonckheere trend test for non-normally distributed continuous variables. Continuous baseline RHI and AI measures were also compared across various baseline patient characteristic sub-groups, using linear regression with a linear trend test and two-sample t-tests as required, dependent on the number of levels in the sub-group.

Relationships between baseline participant characteristics and baseline vascular function were assessed using univariable linear regression. All variables were included as candidates in an exhaustive search (branch-and-bound algorithm) and random forest (Boruta algorithm) procedures to select variables for inclusion in the final multivariable model. Bayesian Information Criterion (BIC) was used for the best model selection. The main effect of metformin versus placebo on PAT measures of vascular function at 36 months post-randomisation was determined using repeated measures ANCOVA for the change in PAT measure from baseline, adjusted for baseline measure and visit. The model was then extended to include an interaction between treatment and visit.

Statistical inferences were drawn with a 2-sided p-value of 0.05. Results are presented unadjusted for multiple comparisons. SAS (version 9.3; SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC, USA), SPSS (SPSS Inc, Chicago IL) and R (version 4.0.5; R Core Team, Vienna, Austria) software were used.

Results

Subjects

Of 367 participants who underwent PAT studies at baseline, data were available from 364 (99.2%) after external quality assurance. Baseline characteristics are presented in Tables 1 and 2. In brief, participants had a mean age of 55.2 ± 8.5 years, 34.0 ± 10.6 years of diabetes and mean HbA1c of 64.5 ± 9.0 mmol/mol (8.1 ± 0.8%). Almost 60% were male and nearly all were of Caucasian ethnicity. As shown, traditional risk factors (BP, lipids) were adequately controlled with the majority of participants taking BP-lowering and lipid-lowering agents. Over one third were users of insulin pumps, which are associated with fewer complications and lower mortality.25,26

Table 1.

Baseline clinical and demographic characteristics according to baseline RHI tertiles.

Overall (n = 364) Reactive hyperaemia index (RHI) Trend test p value
Tertile 1 RHI <1.86 (n = 120) Tertile 2 1.86 ≤ RHI <2.53 (n = 122) Tertile 3 RHI ≥2.53 (n = 122)
General characteristics
Age (years) 55.2 ± 8.5 55.0 ± 8.8 54.2 ± 7.8 56.5 ± 8.8 0.09
Male 212 (58.2%) 79 (65.8%) 71 (58.2%) 62 (50.8%) 0.02
Caucasian 354 (97.3%) 118 (98.3%) 119 (97.5%) 117 (95.9) 0.25
Diabetes duration (years) 34.0 ± 10.6 33.7 ± 11.4 32.7 ± 9.7 35.6 ± 10.6 0.10
C-peptide (nmol/L) 33.0 (30.0–100.0) 33.0 (33.0–100.0) 51.0 (30.0–100.0) 33.0 (30.0–100.0) 0.75
HbA1c
 Absolute (mmol/mol) 64.5 ± 9.0 63.5 ± 9.3 65.8 ± 7.9 64.3 ± 9.7 0.13
 % Units 8.05 ± 0.83 7.96 ± 0.85 8.17 ± 0.73 8.03 ± 0.89 —
Vitamin B12 (pmol/L) 335 (255–442) 309 (239–413) 347 (264–463) 362 (270–474) 0.01
 BMI (kg/m2) 28.5 ± 4.4 28.9 ± 4.0 28.8 ± 4.4 27.8 ± 4.7 0.08
BMI categories — — — — 0.03
 Normal 80 (21.7%) 16 (13.3%) 29 (23.8%) 35 (28.7%) —
 Overweight 167 (45.9%) 66 (55.0%) 48 (39.3%) 53 (43.4%) —
 Obese 116 (31.9%) 38 (31.7%) 45 (36.9%) 33 (27.0%) —
 Overweight and obese 283 (77.7%) 104 (86.7%) 93 (76.2%) 86 (70.5%) —
Waist circumference (cm) 96.8 ± 12.0 99.2 ± 12.7 96.8 ± 10.8 94.5 ± 12.1 0.01
 Elevated waist circumference a 181 (49.7%) 69 (57.5%) 60 (49.2%) 52 (42.6%) 0.02
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) 128.7 ± 14.8 125.9 ± 13.5 129.0 ± 14.9 131.2 ± 15.4 0.02
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) 72.0 ± 10.1 71.0 ± 10.6 73.2 ± 9.3 71.7 ± 10.4 0.25
Pulse pressure (mmHg) 56.8 ± 13.2 54.9 ± 12.2 55.8 ± 13.7 59.5 ± 13.5 0.02
Mean arterial pressure (mmHg) 90.9 ± 10.1 89.3 ± 10.1 91.8 ± 9.5 91.5±10.6 0.10
Smoking history — — — — <0.001
 Current 46 (12.6%) 23 (19.2%) 14 (11.5%) 9 (7.4%) —
 Former 124 (34.1%) 45 (37.5%) 44 (36.1%) 35 (28.7%) —
 Never 194 (53.3%) 52 (43.3%) 64 (52.5%) 78 (63.9%) —
Insulin dose (units/kg/day) 0.65 ± 0.28 0.71 ± 0.31 0.63 ± 0.24 0.61 ± 0.27 0.02
Insulin regimen — — — — 0.08
 Twice daily 10 (2.9%) 5 (4.3%) 3 (2.6%) 2 (1.7%) —
 Basal bolus 205 (58.9%) 68 (58.1%) 79 (67.5%) 59 (50.9%) —
 Insulin pump 134 (38.3%) 44 (7.6%) 35 (29.9%) 55 (47.4%) —
Estimated glucose disposal rate (eGDR) b 5.61 ± 1.69 5.35 ± 1.72 5.53 ± 1.47 5.95 ± 1.82 0.03
Clinical history
Metabolic syndrome c 184 (50.5%) 63 (52.5%) 61 (50%) 60 (49.2%) 0.61
Existing CVD 44 (12.1%) 12 (10.0%) 16 (13.1%) 16 (13.1%) 0.46
 MI or stroke 24 (6.6%) 4 (3.3%) 11 (9.0%) 9 (7.4%) 0.21
Retinopathy — — — — 0.05
 None 29 (8.0%) 10 (8.3%) 7 (5.7%) 12 (9.8%) —
 Non-proliferative 232 (63.7%) 72 (60%) 81 (66.4%) 79 (64.8%) —
 Inactive proliferative 69 (19.0%) 21 (17.5%) 25 (20.5%) 23 (18.9%) —
 Active proliferative 31 (8.5%) 17 (14.2%) 8 (6.6%) 6 (4.9%) —
History of impaired monofilament sensation 46 (14.6%) 13 (13.0%) 14 (13.1%) 19 (17.4%) 0.36
Renal function
eGFR (mL/min/1.73 m 2 ) 93.3 ± 21.7 94.2 ± 23.3 94.6 ± 19.9 91.1 ± 22.0 0.38
Renal — — — — 0.71
 Normal 220 (60.4%) 72 (60.0%) 77 (63.1%) 71 (58.2%) —
 Stage 1 CKD — — — — —
  Microalbuminuria 22 (6.0%) 4 (3.3%) 9 (7.4%) 9 (7.4%) —
  Macroalbuminuria 17 (4.7%) 5 (4.2%) 5 (4.1%) 7 (5.7%) —
 Stage 2 CKD 94 (25.8%) 33 (27.5%) 29 (23.8%) 32 (26.2%) —
 Stage 3a CKD 11 (3.0%) 6 (5.0%) 2 (1.6%) 3 (2.5%) —
Lipids
 Total cholesterol (mmol/L) 3.99 ± 0.91 3.91 ± 0.81 4.05 ± 0.99 4.02 ± 0.93 0.43
 HDL cholesterol (mmol/L) 1.63 ± 0.58 1.56 ± 0.52 1.62 ± 0.60 1.71 ± 0.61 0.12
 LDL cholesterol (mmol/L) 2.21 ± 0.71 2.18 ± 0.64 2.27 ± 0.79 2.19 ± 0.71 0.50
 Triglycerides (mmol/L) 1.02 ± 0.65 1.10 ± 0.68 0.98 ± 0.49 0.99 ± 0.76 0.29
Other
Metformin allocation 183 (50.3%) 58 (48.3%) 63 (51.6%) 62 (50.8%) 0.87
Averaged mean cIMT (mm) 0.774 ± 0.148 0.776 ± 0.159 0.780 ± 0.144 0.767 ± 0.141 0.77
Averaged maximal cIMT (mm) 0.910 ± 0.174 0.920 ± 0.185 0.913 ± 0.167 0.895 ± 0.170 0.52
C-reactive protein (mg/L) 1.39 (0.62–3.06) 1.57 (0.65–3.10) 1.44 (0.76–2.52) 1.23 (0.51–3.34) 0.59
Drugs
Antihypertensive drugs
 Any 271 (74.5%) 96 (80.0%) 83 (68.0%) 92 (75.4%) 0.42
 ACE inhibitor 181 (49.7%) 73 (60.8%) 57 (46.7%) 51 (41.8%) 0.003
 ARB 85 (23.4%) 25 (20.8%) 25 (20.5%) 35 (28.7%) 0.15
 Calcium channel blocker 55 (15.1%) 17 (14.2%) 19 (15.6%) 19 (15.6%) 0.76
 Beta blocker 36 (9.9%) 14 (11.7%) 7 (5.7%) 15 (12.3%) 0.85
Statins 300 (82.4%) 103 (85.8%) 98 (80.3%) 99 (81.1%) 0.34
Antiplatelet drugs
 Aspirin 128 (35.2%) 46 (38.3%) 45 (36.9%) 37 (30.3%) 0.21
 Clopidogrel 13 (3.6%) 2 (1.7%) 7 (5.7%) 4 (3.3%) 0.50
Open in a new tab

Lower RHI corresponds with worse endothelial function (adverse).

Data are expressed as mean ± SD, n (%) or median (IQR).

Variables were compared across the three tertiles using the Mantel-Haenszel ordered test for categorical variables, linear regression for normally distributed continuous variables and Jonckheere trend test for non-normally distributed continuous variables.

Following variables had missing data (number of missing data in brackets): history of impaired monofilament sensation (48), diabetes duration (5), insulin dose (4), triglycerides (4), retinopathy (3), waist circumference (2), BMI (1), aspirin (1), beta blocker (1), clopidogrel (1).

Pearson chi square for metformin allocation.

aDefined as ≥88 cm in females and ≥102 cm in males.

bGDR = exp (4.64,725 – 0.02,032 (waist cm) – 0.09,779 (HbA1c %) – 0.00,235 (TG) mg/dl).

cDefined as having ≥2 of the following four factors (i) hypertension as SBP ≥130 mmHg, DBP ≥85 mmHg, or use of anti-hypertensive medications for any reason; (ii) waist ≥88 cm (females) or ≥102 cm (males); (iii) HDL cholesterol <50 mg/dl (females) or <40 mg/dl (males); (iv) fasting triglycerides ≥150 mg/dl.

Table 2.

Baseline clinical and demographic characteristics according to baseline AI tertiles.

Augmentation index (AI) Trend test p value
Tertile 1 AI ≤5.80 (n = 121) Tertile 2 5.80 < AI ≤20.57) (n = 122) Tertile 3 AI >20.57 (n = 121)
General characteristics
Age (years) 52.0 ± 7.5 55.7 ± 8.4 57.9 ± 8.5 <0.001
Male 94 (77.7%) 70 (57.3%) 48 (33.9%) <0.001
Caucasian 118 (97.5%) 118 (96.7%) 118 (97.5%) 1.00
Diabetes duration (years) 31.6 ± 10.2 34.8 ± 10.8 35.6 ± 10.5 0.009
C-peptide (pmol/L) 33.0 (31.5–100.0) 33.0 (30.0–100.0) 55.0 (33.0–100.0) 0.41
HbA1c
 Absolute (mmol/mol) 63.3 ± 8.8 66.5 ± 8.8 63.8 ± 9.2 0.01
 % Units 7.95 ± 0.80 8.23 ± 0.81 7.98 ± 0.84 —
Vitamin B12 (pmol/L) 329 (244–427) 344 (259–459) 335 (258–445) 0.36
BMI (kg/m2) 29.3 ± 4.2 28.5 ± 4.3 27.8 ± 4.5 0.02
BMI categories — — — <0.001
 Normal 13 (10.7%) 28 (23.0%) 38 (31.4%) —
 Overweight 61 (50.4%) 54 (44.3%) 52 (43.0%) —
 Obese 47 (38.8%) 39 (32.0%) 30 (24.8%) —
 Overweight and obese 108 (89.3%) 93 (76.2%) 82 (67.8%) —
Waist circumference (cm) 100.4 ± 11.2 97.2 ± 12.3 92.9 ± 11.4 <0.001
 Raised waist circumference 65 (53.7%) 60 (49.2%) 56 (46.3%) 0.25
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) 125.8 ± 12.2 128.6 ± 15.1 131.8 ± 16.2 0.005
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) 75.0 ± 9.6 71.1 ± 9.7 69.7 ± 10.5 <0.001
Pulse pressure (mmHg) 50.7 ± 10.2 57.4 ± 12.3 62.1 ± 14.4 <0.001
Mean arterial pressure (mmHg) 91.9 ± 9.4 90.3 ± 10.2 90.4 ± 10.7 0.25
Smoking history — — — 0.86
 Current 15 (12.4%) 21 (17.2%) 10 (8.3%) —
 Former 33 (27.3%) 50 (41.0%) 41 (33.9%) —
 Never 73 (60.3%) 51 (41.8%) 70 (57.9%) —
Insulin dose (units/kg/day) 0.72 ± 0.30 0.66 ± 0.28 0.57 ± 0.23 <0.001
Insulin regimen — — — 0.02
 Twice daily 4 (3.4%) 3 (2.6%) 3 (2.6%) —
 Basal bolus 79 (66.4%) 67 (58.3%) 60 (51.7%) —
 Insulin pump 36 (30.3%) 45 (39.1%) 53 (45.7%) —
Estimated glucose disposal rate (eGDR) 5.20 ± 1.49 5.45 ± 1.52 6.17 ± 1.88 <0.001
Clinical history
Metabolic syndrome a 62 (51.2%) 62 (50.8%) 60 (49.6%) 0.78
Existing CVD 8 (6.6%) 15 (12.3%) 21 (17.4%) 0.010
 MI or stroke 5 (4.1%) 7 (5.7%) 12 (9.9%) 0.070
Nephropathy 5 (4.1%) 3 (2.5%) 9 (7.4%) 0.22
Retinopathy — — — 0.46
 None 8 (6.6%) 8 (6.6%) 13 (10.7%) —
 Non-proliferative 83 (68.6%) 78 (63.9%) 71 (58.7%) —
 Inactive proliferative 16 (13.2%) 23 (18.9%) 30 (24.8%) —
 Active proliferative 14 (11.6%) 12 (9.8%) 5 (4.1%) —
Impaired monofilament sensation 9 (8.5%) 15 (14.3%) 22 (21.0%) 0.010
Renal function
eGFR (mL/min/1.73 m2) 97.1 ± 20.1 94.8 ± 22.8 88.1 ± 21.3 0.003
Renal — — — <0.001
 Normal 80 (66.1%) 84 (68.9%) 56 (46.3%) —
 Stage 1 CKD — — — —
  Microalbuminuria 9 (7.4%) 5 (4.1%) 8 (6.6%) —
  Macroalbuminuria 5 (4.1%) 3 (2.5%) 9 (7.4%) —
 Stage 2 CKD 26 (21.5%) 26 (21.3%) 42 (34.7%) —
 Stage 3 CKD 1 (0.8%) 4 (3.3%) 6 (5.0%) —
Lipids
Total cholesterol (mmol/L) 3.94 ± 0.86 3.94 ± 1.00 4.09 ± 0.88 0.34
HDL cholesterol (mmol/L) 1.51 ± 0.45 1.61 ± 0.59 1.78 ± 0.65 0.001
LDL cholesterol (mmol/L) 2.28 ± 0.74 2.17 ± 0.73 2.19 ± 0.67 0.49
Triglycerides (mmol/L) 1.06 ± 0.66 1.01 ± 0.53 1.00 ± 0.76 0.73
Other
Metformin allocation 62 (51.2%) 62 (50.8%) 59 (48.8%) 0.92
Averaged mean cIMT (mm) 0.743 ± 0.141 0.791 ± 0.151 0.788 ± 0.148 0.02
Averaged maximal cIMT (mm) 0.884 ± 0.167 0.929 ± 0.179 0.915 ± 0.173 0.11
C-reactive protein (mg/L) 1.47 (0.67–2.88) 1.32 (0.60–2.84) 1.39 (0.55–3.24) 0.86
Drugs
Antihypertensive drugs
 Any 95 (78.5%) 85 (69.7%) 91 (75.2%) 0.56
 ACE inhibitor 69 (57.0%) 56 (45.9%) 56 (46.3%) 0.10
 ARB 28 (23.1%) 26 (21.3%) 31 (25.6%) 0.65
 Calcium channel blocker 17 (14.0%) 16 (13.1%) 22 (18.2%) 0.37
 Beta blocker 6 (5.0%) 12 (9.8%) 18 (14.9%) 0.010
Statins 101 (83.5%) 95 (77.9%) 104 (86.0%) 0.61
Antiplatelet drugs
 Aspirin 41 (33.9%) 43 (35.2%) 44 (36.4%) 0.69
 Clopidogrel 2 (1.7%) 4 (3.3%) 7 (5.8%) 0.08
Open in a new tab

Higher AI corresponds with increased arterial stiffness (adverse).

Data are expressed as mean ± SD, n (%) or median (IQR).

Variables were compared across the three tertiles using the Mantel-Haenszel ordered test for categorical variables, linear regression for normally distributed continuous variables and Jonckheere trend test for non-normally distributed continuous variables.

Pearson chi square for metformin allocation.

aDefined as having ≥2 of the following four factors (i) hypertension as SBP ≥130 mmHg, DBP ≥85 mmHg, or use of anti-hypertensive medications for any reason; (ii) waist ≥88 cm (females) or ≥102 cm (males); (iii) HDL-cholesterol <50 mg/dl (females) or <40 mg/dl (males); (iv) fasting triglycerides ≥150 mg/dl.

bDefined as ≥88 cm in females and ≥102 cm in males.

cGDR = exp (4.64,725 – 0.02,032 (waist cm) – 0.09,779 (HbA1c %) – 0.00,235 (TG) mg/dl).

Statistical descriptors of baseline vascular function

Mean RHI and AI were 2.26 ± 0.74 AU and 15.9 ± 19.2% respectively. Sub-group analyses of statistical descriptors of baseline RHI and AI are shown (Figure 1). RHI was lower (adverse) in males, ex- and current smokers, participants with higher body mass index (BMI) and those on multiple daily injections (MDI) insulin therapy versus insulin pump users. AI was higher (adverse) in females, those with lower BMI, insulin pump users and those prescribed statin therapy.

Figure 1.

Figure 1.

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Baseline RHI (panel A) and AI (panel B) are reported in subgroups based on sex, body habitus, insulin regimen and β-blocker use. Baseline RHI (panel C) and AI (panel D) are also shown by prior chronic complications: Cardiovascular Disease (CVD), myocardial infarction (MI) or stroke, estimated Glomerular Filtration Rate (eGFR) and diabetic retinopathy status. Data are expressed as mean ± SD. Variables are compared across subgroups using two-sample t-test for binary variables and linear regression for ordered categorical variables. There was no significant difference in RHI or AI by metabolic syndrome status, prior microalbuminuria, neuropathy status, or statin, antihypertensive, ACE inhibitor, ARB, or calcium channel blocker use (data not shown). *p≤0.05, **p≤0.01, ***p≤0.001.

Associations of baseline vascular function with baseline CVD and microvascular complications status

As shown in Figure 1, participants with existing CVD had higher AI by 41% (p = 0.04), than those without CVD. Subjects with prior MI or stroke had higher AI by 61% (p = 0.02) compared to those without a history of these conditions. However, there was no difference in RHI by prior CVD status.

Lower eGFR was associated with higher AI (trend p < 0.001) and worsening retinopathy was associated with lower RHI. No other associations were detected between baseline RHI or AI and prior microvascular complications.

Associations with baseline RHI and AI

Of note, baseline RHI and AI correlated with each other (r = 0.27, p < 0.001). Table 3 shows their respective univariable and multivariable associates.

Table 3.

Relationship between baseline variables and baseline RHI and AI.

Baseline RHI Baseline AI
Univariable Exhaustive search Univariable Exhaustive search
General characteristics
Age (years) 0.01 (0.00, 0.02) — 0.53*** (0.32, 0.75) —
Male −0.19* (-0.34, -0.03) — −11.45*** (-15.07, -7.84) −11.09*** (-14.65, -7.52)
Caucasian 0.01 (−0.46, 0.48) — −0.49 (−11.90, 10.92) —
Diabetes duration (years) <0.01 (0.00, 0.01) — 0.21* (0.03, 0.39) —
log (C-peptide (pmol/L)) −0.03 (−0.10, 0.04) — 0.06 (−1.61, 1.73) —
HbA1c (mmol/mol) <0.01 (−0.01, 0.01) — −0.05 (−0.26, 0.16) —
eGFR (mL/min/1.73 m 2 ) <0.01 (0.00, 0.00) — −0.12** (-0.20, -0.03) —
log (C-reactive protein (mg/L)) −0.01 (-0.06, 0.04) — −0.88 (−2.07, 0.30) —
log (Vitamin B12 (pmol/L)) 0.27** (0.10, 0.44) 0.25** (0.09, 0.43) 5.23* (1.07, 9.39) —
BMI (kg/m2) −0.02* (-0.04, 0.00) — −0.75*** (-1.18, -0.33) —
Waist circumference (cm) −0.01** (-0.02, 0.00) −0.01*** (-0.02, 0.01) −0.46*** (-0.61, -0.31) −0.26*** (-0.40, -0.11)
Heart rate (bpm) −0.01* (-0.01, 0.00) — −0.49*** (-0.65, -0.33) −0.41*** (-0.56, -0.26)
Systolic blood pressure (mmHg) 0.01** (0.00, 0.01) 0.01*** (0.01, 0.02) 0.12 (−0.01, 0.25) —
Diastolic blood pressure (mmHg) <0.01 (−0.01, 0.01) — −0.39*** (-0.57, -0.21) —
Pulse pressure (mmHg) 0.01** (0.00, 0.02) — 0.39*** (0.26, 0.53) 0.44*** (0.32, 0.57)
Smoking history
 Current −0.35** (-0.58, -0.11) −0.32** (-0.55, -0.09) −2.27 (−8.11, 3.57) —
 Former −0.20* (-0.37, -0.03) — 0.31 (−3.80, 4.43) —
Insulin dose (units/kg/day) −0.41** (-0.68, -0.13) — −15.81*** (-22.36, -9.25) —
Insulin regimen
 Twice daily −0.20 (−0.69, 0.30) — −0.99 (−12.99, 11.01) —
 Insulin pump 0.17* (0.01, 0.34) — 5.88** (1.96, 9.80) —
 Other 0.07 (−0.33, 0.47) — 5.02 (−4.71, 14.75) —
Clinical history
Existing CVD 0.05 (−0.19, 0.28) — 6.01* (0.20, 11.82) —
Retinopathy — — — —
 Non proliferative −0.02 (−0.30, 0.26) — −5.33 (−12.27, 1.61) —
 Inactive proliferative −0.12 (−0.44, 0.20) — −0.65 (−8.45, 7.14) —
 Active proliferative −0.38* (-0.76, -0.01) — −10.88* (-19.98, -1.78) —
History of impaired monofilament sensation
 Yes 0.06 (−0.18, 0.29) — 5.11 (−0.61, 10.82) —
 Unknown −0.13 (−0.36, 0.09) — 1.68 (−3.88, 7.24) —
Lipids
Total cholesterol (mmol/L) 0.02 (−0.06, 0.10) — 1.29 (−0.75, 3.34) —
HDL-cholesterol (mmol/L) 0.20** (0.07, 0.33) — 6.55*** (3.38, 9.72) —
LDL-cholesterol (mmol/L) −0.05 (−0.15.0.06) — −1.47 (−4.09, 1.15) —
Triglycerides (mmol/L) −0.09 (−0.21, 0.02) — −1.73 (−4.59, 1.14) —
Drugs
Antihypertensive drugs
 Any 0.03 (−0.14, 0.21) — −0.26 (−4.56, 4.04) —
 ACE inhibitor −0.11 (−0.27, 0.04) — −1.13 (−4.88, 2.61) —
 ARB 0.09 (−0.09, 0.27) — −0.55 (−5.00, 3.90) —
 Calcium channel blocker −0.02 (−0.23, 0.20) — 0.29 (−4.92, 5.50) —
 Beta blocker 0.07 (−0.19, 0.33) — 7.67* (1.39, 13.96) —
Statins −0.01 (−0.21, 0.19) — −0.39 (−5.30, 4.51) —
Antiplatelet drugs
 Aspirin −0.03 (−0.20, 0.13) — 1.71 (−2.22, 5.63) —
 Clopidogrel 0.01 (−0.40, 0.43) — 6.64 (−3.40, 16.68) —
Adjusted R square — 0.11 — 0.31
Open in a new tab

All variables were included as candidates in an exhaustive search (brand-and-bound algorithm) and random forest (Boruta algorithm) procedures to select variables for inclusion in the final multivariable model. BIC criterion was used for the best model selection.

*p ≤ 0.05, **p ≤ 0.01, ***p ≤ 0.001.

Significant univariable associates of RHI were male sex (negative), log (Vitamin B12), BMI (negative), waist circumference (WC) (negative), HR (negative), systolic BP, PP, smoking history (negative for both current and former smokers), insulin dose (negative), insulin pump use, active proliferative retinopathy (negative) and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) (all p < 0.05).

Significant univariable associates of AI (adverse) were age, male sex (negative), diabetes duration, eGFR (negative), log (vitamin B12), BMI (negative), WC (negative), HR (negative), diastolic BP (DBP) (negative), PP, insulin dose (negative), insulin pump use, existing CVD, active proliferative retinopathy (negative), HDL cholesterol and beta blocker use (all p < 0.05).

In an exhaustive search (Table 3), independent associates of RHI were smoking (negative for both current and former smokers), WC (negative), systolic BP (SBP) and vitamin B12 (adjusted R2 = 0.11).

Independent associates of AI were male sex (negative), PP, HR (negative) and WC (negative) (adjusted R2 = 0.31).

Supplementary Tables 1 and 2 compare the independent statistical associates of RHI and AI selected using exhaustive search (best models selected based on lowest BIC, lowest Malow Cp and highest adjusted R2 selection criterions), random forest classification (Boruta algorithm, for linear and logistic (RHI tertile 1 vs. RHI tertile 3) and stepwise regression. Overall, our exhaustive search model showed the lowest AIC and BIC values (Table 3). All approaches resulted in the selection of similar variables set, but some produced overfitted models.

Effects of metformin on vascular function

As previously reported for RHI, 21 treatment with metformin (vs. placebo) for 36 months had no significant effect on any previously-unreported PAT parameter (fRHI, AI and AI @75) (Table 4).

Table 4.

Effect of metformin versus placebo on RHI and previously-unreported EndoPAT parameters (repeated measures analysis over 36 months).

Change (ANCOVA) a Main effect p value Visit interaction p value b
RHI 1 −0.0645 (−0.1872, 0.0582) 0.30 0.57
fRHI −0.0169 (−0.0895, 0.0558) 0.65 0.22
AI 0.6515 (−1.9730, 3.2760) 0.63 0.008
AI @75 0.7955 (−1.5664, 3.1573) 0.51 0.01
Open in a new tab

Treatment effect and corresponding 95% CIs are provided for metformin compared with placebo

aRepeated measures ANCOVA for the change from baseline, adjusted for baseline value and visit.

bRepeated measures model extended to include visit-by-treatment interaction.

creported in Petrie et al. 23

Discussion

In these novel data from the REMOVAL trial in adults with T1D at high CVD risk, we examined: (i) cross-sectional associations of PAT measures (RHI and AI) with other subject characteristics at baseline; and (ii) whether metformin treatment versus placebo affected PAT measures over 3 years of treatment. We found moderate associations of RHI and AI with several cardiometabolic risk factors and diabetes complications but these accounted for only a modest proportion of their variance. In addition, there was no significant effect of metformin (relative to placebo) on AI or any other previously-unreported PAT parameter measured in the trial following 36 months of treatment.

Numerous methods exist to measure endothelial function ranging from non-invasive procedures, such as FMD, to more invasive tests (e g. infusion of the coronary or peripheral circulation with endothelial-dependent vasodilators). 27 However, many of these techniques are costly, operator dependent or both. EndoPAT is an easy-to-use, non-invasive and minimally operator dependent device that reports RHI as a measure of endothelial function and AI as an integrated marker of cardiovascular function (dependent on cardiac and vascular structure and function but particularly reflecting arterial stiffness). In previous studies, RHI has been shown to correlate with coronary endothelial function 28 and brachial artery ultrasound,10–12 and to be reproducible.29,30 AI has been associated with ventricular-vascular coupling 31 and correlated with radial artery tonometry (SphygmoCor), 32 although there have been few studies to validate AI with other parameters, and none have been in people with T1D.

The correlates of vascular function we noted in people with T1D are mostly consistent with the existing literature in non-T1D groups. The Framingham study, a general population-based study, and one of the largest to examine RHI (using EndoPAT), also found that higher HR and BMI, lower SBP and HDL-cholesterol, and smoking were associated with abnormal endothelial function. 33 Moreover, in a recently published study of 1809 youth with T1D, increased diabetes duration, HbA1c, adiposity, BP and non-HDL were important correlates of AI and pulse wave velocity (PWV) as measured using SphygmoCor. 34 Our study in older adults did not find any association between vascular function and HbA1c, in contrast to previous studies of youth with T1D.34,35 We found that AI was higher in females compared to males, which is consistent with findings from the Bogalusa Heart Study that used a different non-invasive device to derive AI. 36

Our finding of a positive relationship between RHI and AI contrasts with previous studies reporting an inverse correlation between FMD and arterial stiffness (PWV).37,38 This may reflect site of measurement as EndoPAT assesses tone in digital arteries whereas FMD and PWV focus on conduit arteries, usually radial and brachial. Another major difference between our study and those in other populations is that REMOVAL trial participants were treated with pharmacologic doses of subcutaneous insulin and almost all were treated with as antihypertensive and lipid-lowering agents.

While prior cross-sectional studies in T1D have demonstrated inverse correlations between FMD and cardiac dysfunction 39 and kidney impairment,6,40 we did not detect significant associations between RHI and these diabetes complications measured at baseline. This may also reflect intrinsic differences in the methods of vascular assessment or the populations included (e.g. age), but it should be noted that the REMOVAL cohort was larger than many other studies. In addition, data were collected by trained operators across multiple sites and were subject to external quality assurance.

An exhaustive search was used to determine independent associates of vascular function. Only a small proportion of the variance in these baseline parameters was explained by the concurrent demographics and biomarkers, although AI was more strongly associated with these factors than RHI. This was consistent across different statistical models (included in the main table and supplementary material). Our findings are mostly consistent with the existing literature but extend to a high CVD risk group of adults with T1D. The positive association between PP and RHI and negative association between WC and AI contrast with previous studies,41,42 which used other tests of vascular function (i.e. FMD, PWV) and were conducted in different study populations. As both RHI and AI were positively associated with PP and negatively with WC, we speculate that higher PP increases the PAT signal while increased adiposity decreases the PAT signal. These factors may contribute to the observed positive correlation between RHI and AI.

Our PAT results (with both RHI and AI) are consistent with epidemiological data that women with T1D are at higher risk of vascular dysfunction. 1 They also can be taken to reinforce the importance of early recognition and treatment of cardiometabolic risk factors in T1D to prevent subsequent CVD. However, given that only a moderate proportion of variance in vascular function was explained by traditional risk factors, other factors such as novel biomarkers and genetics are also likely to be important. Further studies are merited to identify these factors, which may be prognostic markers or potential therapeutic targets for the prevention and treatment of CVD in T1D.

In our study, insulin pump use was associated cross-sectionally with higher RHI (better endothelial function) compared to MDI. This finding is consistent with a previous small observational study of children with T1D which reported better endothelial function after switching from MDI to insulin pump therapy, 43 and a large observational study in which insulin pump therapy was associated with reduced cardiovascular mortality compared to MDI for comparable HbA1c levels. 26 It has been suggested that reduced glycaemic variability 44 and lower exogenous insulin doses associated with insulin pump use (vs. MDI) may mediate improved endothelial function, reducing long-term risk of chronic complications. In contrast, in our study insulin pump therapy was associated with higher AI. Further longitudinal data are required to corroborate the apparent benefits of long-term insulin pump use on vascular function and clinical complications.

Consistent with existing literature, vitamin B12 was a positive independent determinant of endothelial function. Vitamin B12 deficiency can lead to hyperhomocysteinaemia, which induces endothelial dysfunction through reducing nitric oxide bioavailability. 45 Supplementation with vitamin B12 and folate has been shown to improve endothelial function in people with metabolic syndrome and CVD,46,47 and folate levels were independently correlated with endothelial function in a T1D study. 48 Further investigations on the effects of folate and vitamin B12 supplementation on vascular health in people with T1D are merited.

There was no significant effect of metformin on any PAT parameter following 36 months of treatment, when compared to placebo. Given previous positive findings,22,49 it is possible that there is less capacity to improve poor vascular function in longer duration T1D and with high CVD risk. A prior randomised controlled trial of 40 people with T1D with mean age 43 years (approximately 12 years younger than in REMOVAL) found that metformin significantly improved FMD and RHI but did not affect arterial stiffness. 22 Unlike in the present trial (REMOVAL), this study did not select subjects based on high CVD risk; hence, as well as somewhat younger age, their arterial systems may have been less severely affected by atherosclerosis and arteriosclerosis. In a study of 48 adolescents with T1D, metformin reduced arterial stiffness measured by phase-contrast MRI. 50 In another study of 90 children with T1D, metformin improved GTN-mediated dilatation but not FMD. 51 While the type of test and the age and vascular health of participants is key in determining the effects of interventions on vascular function, future studies should include larger sample sizes and robust measures of vascular function subject to external quality assurance programs.

The REMOVAL trial is the largest and longest trial of metformin in T1D to date and the first to include a CVD endpoint, albeit a surrogate measure. Study strengths include use of high-quality trial data, high rates of technical acceptability, multiple measures of vascular health and important clinical questions given that vascular health is known to be impaired soon after T1D diagnosis. Study limitations are that while simple and suitable for use across sites in multi-centre trials, EndoPAT is only one of many available techniques for measuring vascular function.

In conclusion, in this novel study in T1D adults at high CVD risk, we demonstrated: (i) modest associations between PAT measures of vascular health and several cardiometabolic risk factors and complications; (ii) metformin treatment for 36 months did not affect any PAT parameter. Further studies are merited to identify novel genetic and other factors which may explain the variance in vascular function unaccounted for by traditional risk factors in adults with T1D, and to better understand the effects of metformin on vascular health.

Supplemental Material

Supplemental Material - Cardiometabolic risk factors, peripheral arterial tonometry and metformin in adults with type 1 diabetes participating in the REducing with MetfOrmin Vascular Adverse Lesions trial
Click here for additional data file. (177.4KB, pdf)

Supplemental Material for Cardiometabolic risk factors, peripheral arterial tonometry and metformin in adults with type 1 diabetes participating in the REducing with MetfOrmin Vascular Adverse Lesions trial by David Chen, Alicia J Jenkins, Nicola Greenlaw, Katie Dudman, Tamsin Fernandes, David M Carty, Alun D Hughes, Andrzej S Januszewski, Coen DA Stehouwer and John R Petrie in Diabetes and Vascular Disease Research

Acknowledgements

We thank Merck Germany KGaA (Darmstadt, Germany) for donating study medication and placebo and shipping it to study sites; and Itamar Medical (Caesarea, Israel) for donating EndoPAT equipment and providing central quality assurance services for the reactive hyperaemia index measurements.

Appendix.

Abbreviations and acronyms

ACEI

Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor

AI

Augmentation index

ARB

BIC Angiotensin II receptor blocker Bayesian Information Criterion

BMI

Body mass index

BP

Blood pressure

cIMT

Carotid intima media thickness

CRP

C-reactive protein

CVD

Cardiovascular disease

DBP

Diastolic blood pressure

eGFR

Estimated glomerular filtration rate

FMD

Flow mediated dilatation

fRHI

Framingham reactive hyperaemia index

HDL-C

High-density lipoprotein cholesterol

HR

Heart rate

MDI

Multiple daily injections

PAT

Peripheral arterial tonometry

PWV

Pulse wave velocity

PP

Pulse pressure

REMOVAL

REducing with MetfOrmin Vascular Adverse Lesions in type 1 diabetes

RHI

Reactive hyperaemia index

SBP

Systolic blood pressure

T1D

Type 1 diabetes

WC

Waist circumference

The author(s) declared the following potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: JRP has received research grants from JDRF for the present work. He has also received personal fees and travel support from Novo Nordisk, research grants and personal fees from Sanofi Aventis, Quintiles and Janssen unrelated to the present work, non-financial support (donation of study medication for the present trial) from Merck (Germany), personal fees from ACI Clinical unrelated to the present work and non-financial support (donation of EndoPAT equipment, reading services, and quality assurance support for the present trial) from Itamar Medical. Related to the REMOVAL trial, AJJ has received grants from JDRF International and from JDRF Australia. Unrelated to this trial, she has received grants from Medtronic, the NHMRC (Australia) and Medical Research Future Fund, JDRF Australia, JDRF International, the Helmsley Trust, Sanofi-Aventis, Mylan and Abbott. DC, NG, KD, TF, DMC, ADH, ASJ and CDAS declare no competing interests.

Funding: The author(s) disclosed receipt of the following financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article: This work was supported by the REMOVAL trial was funded by Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation International (JDRF) (New York, NY, USA; SRA 17- 2011-272).

Supplemental Material: Supplemental material for this article is available online.

ORCID iD

David Chen https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6298-3645

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Supplementary Materials

Supplemental Material - Cardiometabolic risk factors, peripheral arterial tonometry and metformin in adults with type 1 diabetes participating in the REducing with MetfOrmin Vascular Adverse Lesions trial
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Supplemental Material for Cardiometabolic risk factors, peripheral arterial tonometry and metformin in adults with type 1 diabetes participating in the REducing with MetfOrmin Vascular Adverse Lesions trial by David Chen, Alicia J Jenkins, Nicola Greenlaw, Katie Dudman, Tamsin Fernandes, David M Carty, Alun D Hughes, Andrzej S Januszewski, Coen DA Stehouwer and John R Petrie in Diabetes and Vascular Disease Research

Articles from Diabetes & Vascular Disease Research are provided here courtesy of SAGE Publications

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