Standardized ileal digestibility of amino acids differs among sources of bakery meal when fed to growing pigs

Hans H Stein; Olayiwola Adeola; Samuel K Baidoo; Merlin D Lindemann; Sunday A Adedokun; North Central Coordinating Committee on Swine Nutrition (NCCC-42)

doi:10.1093/jas/skad208

. 2023 Jun 21;101:skad208. doi: 10.1093/jas/skad208

Standardized ileal digestibility of amino acids differs among sources of bakery meal when fed to growing pigs

Hans H Stein ^1,^✉, Olayiwola Adeola ², Samuel K Baidoo ³, Merlin D Lindemann ⁴, Sunday A Adedokun ⁵; North Central Coordinating Committee on Swine Nutrition (NCCC-42) ^6,^a

PMCID: PMC10347965 PMID: 37343215

Abstract

A multistate experiment involving universities in IL, IN, KY, and MN was conducted as a part of the research efforts by the North-Central Coordinating Committee-42 on swine nutrition. The null hypothesis that there are no differences in the standardized ileal digestibility (SID) of amino acids (AA) among different sources of bakery meal was tested. Eleven sources of bakery meal were procured from swine-producing states in the United States and each source was included in one diet as the sole source of AA. A N-free diet was prepared as well. Diets were prepared in one batch and divided into four sub-batches that were subsequently distributed to the four participating universities. At each university, diets were fed to 12 pigs that had a T- cannula installed in the distal ileum. Pigs were allotted to incomplete Latin square designs with 12 pigs and 4, 5, or 6 periods for a total of 21 replicate pigs per diet. Each period lasted 7 d with ileal digesta being collected from the cannulas on days 6 and 7. Samples were analyzed for AA and the SID of each AA was calculated. Results indicated that there were differences (P < 0.001) in the SID of all AA except Pro among the 11 sources of bakery meal. The differences in SID of AA observed in this experiment were greater than what is usually observed among sources of the same ingredient, indicating that there is more variability among sources of bakery meal than among different sources of other ingredients. This is likely a consequence of different raw materials being used in the production of different sources of bakery meal. Regardless of source of bakery meal, the AA with the least SID was Lys indicating that some of the raw materials in the product streams used to generate the bakery meals may have been overheated. Additionally, the Lys:crude protein ratio in each source of bakery meal was not a good predictor of the SID of Lys, which likely reflects the different raw materials being included in the different meals. In conclusion, the SID of AA varies among different sources of bakery meal and the SID of Lys is less than the SID of all other indispensable AA.

Keywords: amino acids, bakery meal, digestibility, lysine, pigs

Digestibility of amino acids in bakery meal varies among sources. Specifically, the digestibility of Lys is low, which requires the use of other sources of Lys in diets containing bakery meal.

Introduction

Human foods that cannot be used for their intended purposes may be included in diets for pigs (Jinno et al., 2018; Tretola et al., 2019a; Luciano et al., 2022). On a global basis, if all nonusable food items are used in feed for animals, these items may contribute up to 15% of total feed usage for livestock (Sandström et al., 2022). There are, however, considerable challenges associated with collection, cleaning, preparation, and incorporation of nonusable food items into practical diets for animals (Tretola et al., 2017). There is also a risk of contamination with harmful microbes and viruses associated with the use of these ingredients (Tretola et al., 2019b; Shurson, 2020). Additionally, the chemical composition and nutritional values of collected food products vary greatly (Fung et al., 2019a, 2019b) and for many food items, a drying procedure is needed to stabilize the ingredients. There are, therefore, only a limited number of nonusable food items that are used in diets for commercially fed pigs. In North America, nonusable food items used in animal feeding are marketed under the common name “bakery meal” because they primarily consist of products from the bakery and confectionary industries and include dated or otherwise unusable breakfast cereals, breads, cakes, cookies, and other bakery products (Slominski et al., 2004; Liu et al., 2018). Following collection from production facilities, supermarkets, or restaurants, ingredients are unpacked, ground, and mixed. Nonfood ingredients such a cereal co-products or soybean meal are sometimes mixed with the collected food items to ensure that the final product meets nutritional specifications. Indeed, a recent survey (Liu et al., 2018) of the chemical composition of 46 sources of bakery meal from the United States indicated that there was surprisingly little variation in chemical composition among different sources of bakery meal regardless of the geographical area in which the ingredients were produced. It, therefore, appears that the bakery meal industry is able to blend different product streams in such a way that a final product with a relatively constant chemical composition is produced. However, the nutritional value of a feed ingredient depends not only on the chemical composition, but also on the digestibility of energy and nutrients. As a consequence, there is a need to determine the digestibility of nutrients in bakery meal and also to determine if differences exist among sources of bakery meal. Therefore, the objective of this research was to test the null hypothesis that amino acid (AA) digestibility in bakery meal is not different among sources.

Materials and methods

The experiment was part of the research efforts of the North Central Coordinating Committee on Swine Nutrition (NCCC-42) and four universities participated in the animal work of the experiment (i.e., University of Illinois, Purdue University, , University of Kentucky, and University of Minnesota). The protocol for the experiment was reviewed and approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee at each participating university. Pigs used at the four universities were the offspring of PIC Line 359 males mated to Camborough females (PIC, Hendersonville, TN, USA; University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, USA); Duroc males mated to Yorkshire × Landrace females (Purdue University, Lafayette, IN, USA); Compart Duroc males mated to Topigs 20 females (Topigs Norsvin, Burnsville, MN, USA; University of Minnesota, St. Paul, USA); and Chester White males mated to Yorkshire × Landrace females (University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA). Twelve male pigs were used at each university and the average initial body weight of pigs was 35.2 ± 9.4 kg.

Animals, housing, diets, feeding, and sample collection

Eleven sources of bakery meal were collected from feed mills located in the swine-producing states of the United States. Each source was shipped to the University of Illinois where subsamples were collected for analysis (Table 1). Each source of bakery meal was mixed into one diet as the only source of AA and an N-free diet was prepared as well. Thus, a total of 12 diets were formulated (Tables 2 and 3). Vitamins and minerals were included in all diets to meet or exceed current requirement estimates (NRC, 2012) and all diets also contained 0.40% titanium dioxide as an indigestible marker. Each diet was mixed in one batch at the University of Illinois, bagged, and distributed to the four participating universities.

Table 1.

Nutrient composition of the 11 sources of bakery meal¹

Item, %	Bakery meal source											Average	CV
Item, %	A	B	C	D	E	F	G	H	I	J	K	Average	CV
Dry matter	89.90	90.06	88.99	90.11	88.67	88.49	88.43	89.25	84.88	86.47	90.18	88.68	1.9
Crude protein	11.13	12.00	9.03	11.91	13.34	13.91	11.32	12.32	12.87	8.03	12.26	11.65	15.9
Lys to crude protein ratio, × 10	3.59	2.83	3.55	3.86	3.82	2.95	3.27	3.09	3.73	3.24	4.73	3.51	15.2
Indispensable amino acids
Arg	0.53	0.58	0.47	0.63	0.67	0.60	0.60	0.50	0.73	0.35	0.67	0.57	18.7
His	0.24	0.26	0.20	0.27	0.30	0.26	0.27	0.27	0.32	0.15	0.29	0.26	18.2
Ile	0.45	0.44	0.35	0.45	0.55	0.45	0.45	0.49	0.57	0.39	0.53	0.46	14.3
Leu	0.82	0.80	0.63	0.86	1.03	0.84	0.82	0.92	1.06	0.66	0.96	0.85	15.7
Lys	0.40	0.34	0.32	0.46	0.51	0.41	0.37	0.38	0.48	0.26	0.58	0.41	21.9
Met	0.17	0.19	0.15	0.19	0.19	0.19	0.18	0.21	0.20	0.11	0.20	0.18	15.5
Phe	0.52	0.51	0.42	0.52	0.61	0.54	0.53	0.58	0.67	0.46	0.60	0.54	13.3
Thr	0.34	0.35	0.27	0.37	0.43	0.36	0.36	0.36	0.47	0.27	0.44	0.37	16.9
Trp	0.12	0.15	0.10	0.13	0.13	0.11	0.17	0.13	0.15	0.10	0.16	0.13	17.4
Val	0.53	0.54	0.42	0.56	0.63	0.53	0.54	0.55	0.74	0.43	0.60	0.55	16.0
Dispensable amino acids
Ala	0.47	0.48	0.39	0.54	0.63	0.48	0.48	0.46	0.73	0.38	0.56	0.51	20.0
Asp	0.75	0.70	0.61	0.79	1.01	0.80	0.72	0.68	0.92	0.56	1.06	0.78	20.3
Cys	0.23	0.27	0.19	0.23	0.25	0.25	0.27	0.27	0.23	0.15	0.21	0.23	15.8
Glu	2.54	2.83	1.99	2.46	2.61	2.62	3.03	3.32	1.88	1.23	2.56	2.46	23.5
Gly	0.46	0.52	0.40	0.51	0.58	0.49	0.53	0.45	0.65	0.34	0.53	0.49	17.2
Pro	0.85	0.93	0.64	0.83	0.86	0.83	0.99	1.16	0.65	0.40	0.81	0.81	24.5
Ser	0.44	0.44	0.34	0.45	0.50	0.46	0.47	0.49	0.51	0.30	0.51	0.44	15.6
Tyr	0.33	0.33	0.28	0.33	0.41	0.35	0.35	0.38	0.80	0.84	0.37	0.43	44.8
Total amino acids	10.4	10.9	8.4	10.8	12.1	10.8	11.3	11.9	12.0	7.6	11.9	10.7	13.8

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¹All values except dry matter were adjusted to 88% dry matter.

Table 2.

Ingredient composition of experimental diets, as-fed basis

Item	Bakery meal¹	N-free
Bakery meal	97.85	—
Soybean oil	—	4.00
Ground limestone	0.30	0.30
Dicalcium phosphate	0.90	1.75
Sucrose	—	20.00
Corn starch	—	68.50
Solka floc²	—	4.00
Magnesium oxide	—	0.10
Potassium carbonate	—	0.40
Sodium chloride	0.40	0.40
Titanium dioxide	0.40	0.40
Vitamin–mineral premix³	0.15	0.15

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¹A total of 11 diets were formulated using 11 sources of bakery meal.

²Fiber Sales and Development Corp., Urbana, OH.

³The vitamin–micromineral premix provided the following quantities of vitamins and micro minerals per kilogram of complete diet: vitamin A as retinyl acetate, 11,150 IU; vitamin D₃ as cholecalciferol, 2,210 IU; vitamin E as DL alpha tocopheryl acetate, 66 IU; vitamin K as menadione nicotinamide bisulfate, 1.42 mg; thiamin as thiamine mononitrate, 1.10 mg; riboflavin, 6.59 mg; pyridoxine as pyridoxine hydrochloride, 1.00 mg; vitamin B₁₂, 0.03 mg; d-pantothenic acid as d-calcium pantothenate, 23.6 mg; niacin, 44.1 mg; folic acid, 1.59 mg; biotin, 0.44 mg; Cu, 20 mg as copper chloride; Fe, 125 mg as iron sulfate; I, 1.26 mg as ethylenediamine dihydriodide; Mn, 60.2 mg as manganese hydroxychloride; Se, 0.30 mg as sodium selenite and selenium yeast; and Zn, 125.1 mg as zinc hydroxychloride.

Table 3.

Analyzed nutrient composition of experimental diets, as-fed basis

Item, %	Bakery meal diet											N-free diet
Item, %	A	B	C	D	E	F	G	H	I	J	K	N-free diet
Dry matter	89.98	90.23	89.44	90.49	88.58	87.99	87.99	89.06	85.94	86.77	90.38	92.77
Crude protein	11.08	12.07	9.21	11.92	13.51	11.23	13.81	12.39	12.31	8.21	13.00	0.53
Indispensable amino acids
Arg	0.50	0.56	0.44	0.63	0.65	0.54	0.66	0.49	0.64	0.35	0.66	0.01
His	0.24	0.27	0.19	0.28	0.30	0.24	0.30	0.27	0.29	0.16	0.29	0.00
Ile	0.42	0.43	0.33	0.43	0.52	0.41	0.48	0.46	0.51	0.40	0.51	0.01
Leu	0.80	0.79	0.62	0.86	1.02	0.79	0.93	0.89	0.96	0.68	0.95	0.02
Lys	0.38	0.35	0.28	0.45	0.50	0.38	0.41	0.37	0.43	0.27	0.57	0.01
Met	0.17	0.18	0.15	0.19	0.21	0.16	0.21	0.20	0.18	0.11	0.20	0.01
Phe	0.51	0.52	0.40	0.54	0.61	0.49	0.61	0.58	0.62	0.48	0.58	0.01
Thr	0.35	0.36	0.28	0.39	0.44	0.34	0.40	0.37	0.45	0.29	0.44	0.01
Trp	0.12	0.15	0.07	0.13	0.11	0.10	0.14	0.13	0.11	0.09	0.13	< 0.02
Val	0.52	0.54	0.42	0.57	0.63	0.51	0.59	0.55	0.69	0.47	0.60	0.01
Dispensable amino acids
Ala	0.46	0.48	0.37	0.54	0.61	0.46	0.54	0.45	0.64	0.40	0.56	0.01
Asp	0.76	0.71	0.62	0.83	1.03	0.74	0.83	0.68	0.86	0.57	1.05	0.02
Cys	0.22	0.26	0.20	0.25	0.26	0.23	0.27	0.25	0.20	0.15	0.22	0.01
Glu	2.47	2.86	2.03	2.49	2.68	2.47	3.21	3.31	1.76	1.25	2.54	0.02
Gly	0.44	0.51	0.37	0.51	0.55	0.44	0.55	0.44	0.56	0.35	0.50	0.01
Pro	0.87	0.98	0.66	0.88	0.91	0.80	1.08	1.15	0.65	0.45	0.83	0.05
Ser	0.42	0.43	0.34	0.45	0.51	0.43	0.50	0.48	0.46	0.29	0.47	0.01
Tyr	0.28	0.29	0.21	0.33	0.37	0.26	0.35	0.34	0.80	0.86	0.33	0.01
Total amino acids	10.19	10.89	8.19	11.00	12.17	9.99	12.27	11.68	11.01	7.81	11.69	0.41

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Each university fed diets to 12 growing pigs that had a T-cannula installed in the distal ileum. Pigs were allotted to incomplete Latin square designs with six periods at the University of IL and Purdue University, five periods at the University of KY, and four periods at the University of MN for a total of 21 possible observations per diet. Pigs were housed individually and water was available at all times. Pigs were provided their respective diets at 3.3 times the maintenance requirement for metabolizable energy (i.e., 197 kcal metabolizable energy (ME)/kg × body weight (BW)^0.60; NRC, 2012). The calculated metabolizable energy in the bakery meal diets and the N-free diet was 3,320 kcal/kg (as-fed) and 3,790 kcal/kg (as-fed), respectively.

Each experimental period lasted 7 d. The initial 5 d of each period were considered an adaptation period and ileal digesta were collected on days 6 and 7 for 9 h using standard procedures with digesta collection starting immediately after feeding the morning meal. No acid was added to collection bags because this does not influence AA digestibility (Lee et al., 2021).

Cannulas were opened and a 225-mL plastic bag was attached to the opened cannula barrel and digesta flowing into the bag were collected. Bags were removed whenever they were full or every 30 min and replaced with a new bag. All samples were stored at −20 °C as soon as collected. At the conclusion of each period, ileal digesta samples were thawed, mixed within animal and diet, and sub-samples were collected. Digesta samples were lyophilized and shipped overnight to the University of Illinois where they were finely ground using a coffee grinder before analysis.

Sample analysis

All analyses were conducted in duplicates. Dry matter in the 11 sources of bakery meal, all diets, and freeze-dried ileal digesta samples was determined by placing 1 g of sample in a drying oven for 2 h at 135 °C (method 930.15; AOAC Int., 2007). Crude protein in ingredient and diet samples was calculated as N × 6.25 and N was measured using the combustion procedure (method 990.03; AOAC Int., 2007) on a LECO FP628 (LECO Corp., Saint Joseph, MI). Amino acids in bakery meals, diets, and ileal digesta samples were analyzed on a Hitachi Amino Acid Analyzer (Model No. L8800; Hitachi High Technologies America, Inc.; Pleasanton, CA) using ninhydrin for postcolumn derivatization and norleucine as the internal standard. Prior to analysis, samples were hydrolyzed with 6N HCl for 24 h at 110 °C [method 982.30 E(a); AOAC Int., 2007]. Methionine and Cys were determined as Met sulfone and cysteic acid after an overnight cold performic acid oxidation before hydrolysis [method 982.30 E(b); AOAC Int., 2007]. Tryptophan was determined after BaOH hydrolysis for 22 h at 110 °C [method 982.30 E(c); AOAC Int., 2007]. The concentration of titanium in diet and ileal digesta samples was analyzed following the procedure of Myers et al. (2004).

Calculations and statistical analysis

Following analysis, the apparent ileal digestibility (AID), basal endogenous losses, and the standardized ileal digestibility (SID) were calculated for crude protein and AA in the 11 diets containing bakery meal (Stein et al., 2007). Because bakery meal was the only source of AA in each diet, the AID and SID of AA in diets also represented the AID and SID of AA in bakery meal.

Data were analyzed using PROC MIXED in SAS (SAS Institute Inc., Cary, NC). Homogeneity of the variances was confirmed. The model included dietary treatment as the fixed effect and station as well as the interaction between dietary treatment and station as random effects. Pig was the experimental unit. Least square means were calculated and separated using the pdiff option with Tukey’s adjustment. Differences were considered significant at P ≤ 0.05 and a trend at P ≤ 0.10. Correlation coefficients (r) between Lys:CP and digestibility of Lys or digestible Lys (% of diet) were determined using the CORR procedure of SAS.

Results

The AID of all indispensable AA in the 11 sources of bakery meal ranged from 50.5% to 74.2% (Table 4). The AID ranged from 31.1% to 58.7% for Lys; from 54.9% to 80.4% for Met; from 38.4% to 64.6% for Thr; from 42.7% to 66.7% for Trp; and from 47.4% to 71.7% for Val. The AID of dispensable AA in the 11 sources of bakery meal ranged from 42.7% to 66.7%. The endogenous losses of CP and AA varied somewhat among research stations with station A having the greatest (P < 0.05) value for most AA (Table 5).

Table 4.

Apparent ileal digestibility of crude protein and amino acids (AA) in 11 sources of bakery meal

Item	Bakery meal											Mean	SD	Diet¹
Item	A	B	C	D	E	F	G	H	I	J	K	Mean	SD	SEM	P-value
Observation, n	18	20	20	19	18	17	17	21	19	19	21	—	—	—	—
Crude protein	49.6^de	63.6^ab	56.7^bcd	51.8^cd	61.1^abc	52.3^cd	67.9^a	66.7^a	40.6^ef	38.0^f	62.6^ab	55.56	10.08	3.61	<0.001
Indispensable AA
Arg	63.0^d	74.2^ab	68.0^bcd	72.6^abc	75.5^ab	65.3^cd	76.6^a	71.9^abc	64.6^cd	52.5^e	75.3^ab	69.05	7.28	2.62	<0.001
His	64.1^de	75.8^ab	68.0^cd	70.4^bcd	73.6^abc	66.4^d	77.5^a	76.4^ab	57.9^ef	56.2^f	75.0^ab	69.22	7.43	1.73	<0.001
Ile	59.9^de	73.8^ab	67.3^bcd	64.0^cd	69.4^abc	64.3^cd	75.9^a	74.8^ab	52.1^f	53.3^ef	71.0^abc	65.97	8.20	1.83	<0.001
Leu	66.1^d	77.4^ab	71.3^bcd	70.2^cd	75.0^abc	69.5^cd	80.3^a	79.4^a	56.5^e	54.4^e	75.5^abc	70.50	8.63	1.88	<0.001
Lys	35.5^cde	39.4^bcde	46.5^abc	43.1^bcde	51.6^ab	45.6^abcd	50.4^ab	50.3^ab	32.5^de	31.1^e	58.7^a	44.07	8.71	3.43	<0.001
Met	70.3^cd	77.3^ab	72.6^bcd	72.6^bcd	76.4^abc	68.7^d	80.4^a	79.8^a	59.8^e	54.9^e	77.8^ab	71.88	8.16	1.31	<0.001
Phe	67.2^d	78.6^ab	72.8^bcd	71.2^cd	74.8^abc	69.9^cd	81.2^a	80.6^a	60.6^e	60.7^e	75.6^abc	72.11	7.15	1.63	<0.001
Thr	44.1^efg	61.5^abc	53.1^bcde	50.5^cdef	60.1^abcd	49.3^defg	64.6^a	62.8^ab	41.8^fg	38.4^g	63.7^ab	53.64	9.49	3.42	<0.001
Trp	65.2^bc	77.7^a	57.8^c	65.6^bc	64.3^bc	63.2^bc	76.7^a	78.0^a	43.9^d	54.8^c	71.0^ab	65.30	10.51	4.34	<0.001
Val	56.4^de	69.6^ab	63.5^abcd	61.3^bcd	66.5^abc	60.1^cd	71.7^a	70.7^a	50.1^e	47.4^e	68.2^abc	62.32	8.22	2.76	<0.001
Mean	58.8^de	71.0^ab	65.6^bcd	64.5^bcd	69.5^abc	62.8^cd	74.2^a	73.0^a	53.2^ef	50.5^f	71.1^ab	64.92	7.96	1.93	<0.001
Dispensable AA
Ala	47.3^de	60.6^abc	54.3^bcd	55.7^abcd	62.1^abc	51.6^cd	65.6^a	62.3^ab	46.5^de	40.6^e	63.8^ab	55.49	8.22	2.39	<0.001
Asp	49.3^de	62.0^abc	58.6^abc	56.2^bcd	64.1^ab	53.6^cd	66.3^a	61.8^abc	41.7^e	43.6^e	65.9^a	56.63	8.67	2.55	<0.001
Cys	58.7^c	71.5^ab	61.2^bc	63.0^abc	65.2^abc	63.1^abc	73.6^a	72.1^a	34.8^d	41.4^d	61.9^bc	60.59	12.23	2.95	<0.001
Glu	78.8^c	86.8^ab	82.2^bc	80.6^c	80.9^c	80.4^c	88.0^a	88.4^a	63.4^d	67.5^d	81.3^c	79.85	7.90	1.23	<0.001
Gly	22.1^cd	44.0^ab	29.6^abc	26.8^bc	45.5^ab	18.3^cd	48.1^a	44.2^ab	13.5^cd	4.8^d	41.5^ab	30.77	14.85	7.03	<0.001
Pro	13.1^abc	37.5^ab	2.4^abc	4.7^abc	39.1^ab	-19.0^bc	38.6^ab	49.0^a	-33.3^cd	-83.0^d	19.3^abc	6.22	39.15	21.18	<0.001
Ser	57.0^d	71.0^ab	63.8^bcd	61.3^cd	68.2^abc	63.3^bcd	74.0^a	73.7^a	48.3^e	43.8^e	67.0^abc	62.85	9.85	2.16	<0.001
Tyr	57.1^d	71.2^b	59.8^cd	64.1^c	71.2^b	56.8^d	75.7^b	75.6^b	83.1^a	88.4^a	71.7^b	70.43	10.28	2.02	<0.001
Mean	55.5^cd	69.0^ab	58.8^bcd	57.3^cd	66.7^abc	53.4^de	71.5^a	72.8^a	43.8^e	42.7^e	64.2^abcd	59.60	10.35	3.99	<0.001
Mean, all AA	56.9^c	69.4^a	61.3^bc	60.1^bc	67.4^ab	57.1^c	72.2^a	72.6^a	47.8^d	46.3^d	67.0^ab	61.65	9.10	2.81	<0.001

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¹Effect of source of bakery meal.

^a,b,c,d,e,fMeans within a row lacking a common superscript letter are different (P < 0.05).

Table 5.

Basal endogenous losses (gram per kilogram dry matter intake) of amino acids from pigs fed the N-free diet at four universities¹

Item	Universities				Mean	SD	Station
Item	A	B	C	D	Mean	SD	SEM	P-value
Observation, n	6	5	5	5	—	—	—	—
Crude protein	30.23	26.36	26.23	16.31	24.78	5.94	5.88	0.404
Indispensable amino acids
Arg	1.23	1.22	0.39	0.59	0.86	0.43	0.33	0.191
His	0.24	0.19	0.15	0.18	0.19	0.04	0.02	0.075
Ile	0.43^a	0.33^ab	0.30^b	0.30^b	0.34	0.06	0.03	0.024
Leu	0.73^a	0.49^b	0.47^b	0.51^b	0.55	0.12	0.05	0.003
Lys	0.50	0.69	0.58	0.38	0.54	0.13	0.11	0.302
Met	0.11	0.08	0.09	0.09	0.09	0.01	0.01	0.166
Phe	0.43^a	0.28^b	0.28^b	0.30^b	0.32	0.07	0.03	0.007
Thr	0.72	0.58	0.55	0.51	0.59	0.09	0.06	0.082
Trp	0.18^a	0.11^b	0.10^b	0.11^b	0.13	0.04	0.01	< 0.001
Val	0.74^a	0.46^b	0.42^b	0.51^b	0.53	0.14	0.04	< 0.001
Total, indispensable amino acids	5.31	4.43	3.32	3.48	4.13	0.92	0.56	0.069
Dispensable AA
Ala	1.00	0.85	0.54	0.58	0.74	0.22	0.18	0.251
Asp	1.10^a	0.83^ab	0.66^b	0.77^b	0.84	0.19	0.08	0.007
Cys	0.23^a	0.16^b	0.18^ab	0.19^ab	0.19	0.03	0.02	0.033
Glu	1.31^a	0.98^ab	0.82^b	0.91^ab	1.01	0.21	0.11	0.026
Gly	3.05	2.74	0.97	1.68	2.11	0.96	0.59	0.081
Pro	12.35	12.95	2.58	6.01	8.47	5.03	3.59	0.161
Ser	0.69^a	0.59^ab	0.42^b	0.46^ab	0.54	0.12	0.06	0.032
Tyr	0.39^a	0.26^b	0.25^b	0.26^b	0.29	0.07	0.02	0.002
Total dispensable amino acids	20.11	19.37	6.42	10.86	14.19	6.67	4.52	0.127
Total, all amino acids	25.80	24.13	10.39	14.62	18.74	7.43	5.02	0.123

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¹A = University of Illinois; B = Purdue University; C = University of Minnesota; and D = University of Kentucky.

^a,bMeans within a row lacking a common superscript letter are different (P < 0.05).

The SID of all indispensable AA in the 11 sources of bakery meal ranged from 61.5% to 81.8% (Table 6). The SID ranged from 43.2% to 67.2% for Lys; from 62.3% to 84.3% for Met; from 53.1% to 77.5% for Thr; from 53.7% to 86.5% for Trp; and from 56.7% to 79.6% for Val. The SID of all dispensable AA in the 11 sources of bakery meal ranged from 64.4 to 88.6%.

Table 6.

Standardized ileal digestibility of crude protein and amino acids (AA) in 11 sources of bakery meal¹

Item	Bakery meal											Mean	SD	Diet²
Item	A	B	C	D	E	F	G	H	I	J	K	Mean	SD	SEM	P-value
Observation, n	18	20	20	19	18	17	17	21	19	19	21	—	—	—	—
Crude protein	69.7^cd	82.1^a	80.8^ab	70.6^cd	77.4^abc	71.7^bcd	83.7^a	84.5^a	57.9^e	64.2^de	79.9^ab	74.79	8.63	3.47	<0.001
Indispensable AA
Arg	78.7^cd	88.1^a	85.6^abc	84.8^abc	87.0^ab	79.3^bcd	88.0^a	87.6^a	76.0^d	74.4^d	87.0^ab	83.32	5.17	2.64	<0.001
His	71.1^de	82.1^ab	76.8^abcd	76.5^bcd	79.1^abc	73.3^cd	83.0^a	82.6^ab	63.5^f	66.5^ef	80.9^ab	75.95	6.66	1.44	<0.001
Ile	67.2^cd	81.0^a	76.6^ab	71.2^bc	75.2^ab	71.6^bc	82.1^a	81.3^a	57.8^e	60.7^de	77.0^ab	72.87	8.19	1.59	<0.001
Leu	72.2^c	83.6^a	79.2^abc	76.0^bc	79.7^ab	75.6^bc	85.5^a	84.8^a	61.4^d	61.3^d	80.7^ab	76.38	8.44	1.52	<0.001
Lys	48.2^cde	53.2^bcde	63.5^ab	53.9^bcde	61.1^abcd	58.0^abcd	61.9^abc	63.3^ab	43.2^e	48.2^de	67.2^a	56.53	7.70	4.25	<0.001
Met	75.2^de	82.0^abc	78.2^bcde	77.1^cde	80.3^abcd	73.8^e	84.3^a	83.9^ab	64.2^f	62.3^f	82.0^abc	76.66	7.45	1.25	<0.001
Phe	72.9^cd	84.2^a	80.1^ab	76.6^bc	79.4^ab	75.7^bc	85.9^a	85.6^a	65.1^e	66.5^de	80.6^ab	77.51	7.08	1.34	<0.001
Thr	59.3^cd	76.3^a	72.0^ab	64.2^bcd	72.0^ab	64.6^bc	77.5^a	76.9^a	53.1^d	56.0^cd	75.8^a	67.97	8.94	2.74	<0.001
Trp	74.7^bcd	85.2^a	73.9^cd	74.4^bcd	74.4^bcd	74.2^bcd	84.6^ab	86.5^a	53.7^e	66.9^d	79.7^abc	75.30	9.33	3.12	<0.001
Val	65.6^cd	78.5^ab	74.9^abc	69.7^bc	73.9^abc	69.2^bc	79.6^a	79.3^a	56.7^d	57.3^d	76.2^ab	70.99	8.22	2.05	<0.001
Mean	68.1^de	80.0^ab	77.3^abc	72.9^bcd	76.8^abc	72.0^cd	81.8^a	81.5^a	60.4^f	61.5^ef	78.7^abc	73.72	7.58	1.60	<0.001
Dispensable AA
Ala	62.1^cd	74.8^ab	72.5^ab	68.3^abc	73.0^ab	66.1^bcd	77.7^a	77.2^a	56.5^d	56.9^d	75.9^ab	69.19	7.82	2.14	<0.001
Asp	59.2^d	72.7^ab	70.7^abc	65.3^bcd	71.2^abc	63.5^cd	75.1^a	72.8^ab	50.0^e	56.4^de	73.1^ab	66.36	8.20	1.93	<0.001
Cys	66.4^b	78.0^a	69.7^ab	69.8^ab	71.6^ab	70.3^ab	79.7^a	78.8^a	42.9^c	52.3^c	69.7^ab	68.11	11.24	2.56	<0.001
Glu	82.5^b	90.0^a	86.6^ab	84.3^b	84.2^b	83.9^b	90.8^a	91.1^a	68.3^d	74.5^c	84.9^b	83.73	6.91	0.99	<0.001
Gly	65.7^bcd	81.3^ab	81.3^ab	64.2^bcde	79.1^abc	61.0^cde	81.7^ab	87.2^a	45.6^e	58.3^de	79.7^abc	71.37	13.08	6.19	<0.001
Pro	100.7^a	114.3^a	118.8^a	91.7^a	120.8^a	74.8^a	106.7^a	112.8^a	81.2^a	87.7^a	111.9^a	101.94	15.83	19.41	0.155
Ser	68.6^c	82.4^a	78.0^ab	72.2^bc	77.5^ab	74.3^bc	83.5^a	83.7^a	58.4^d	60.0^d	77.3^ab	74.16	8.75	1.70	<0.001
Tyr	66.4^e	80.2^bc	72.2^de	72.0^de	78.0^cd	66.7^e	83.0^bc	83.2^bc	86.1^ab	91.2^a	79.6^c	78.05	7.96	1.45	<0.001
Mean	77.2^bcd	88.6^a	85.5^abc	77.8^bcd	84.7^abc	75.0^cde	88.4^ab	90.5^a	64.4^e	72.0^de	83.9^abc	80.74	8.14	3.24	<0.001
Mean, all AA	73.6^de	85.0^a	82.0^ab	75.6^bcd	80.9^abcd	73.7^cde	85.6^a	86.9^a	62.4^f	67.5^ef	81.4^abc	77.70	7.86	2.25	<0.001

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¹Values for standardized ileal digestibility were calculated by correcting the values for apparent ileal digestibility with corresponding values for the basal ileal endogenous losses that were determined at each experiment station.

²Effect of source of bakery meal.

^a,b,c,d,e,fMeans within a row lacking a common superscript letter are different (P < 0.05).

The correlation coefficients between the Lys to crude protein ratio and the apparent or standardized ileal digestibility of Lys were not significant (Table 7). However, there were correlations (P < 0.05) between the Lys to crude protein ratio and the concentrations (%) of apparent ileal digestible Lys or standardized ileal digestible Lys in the bakery meals.

Table 7.

Correlation coefficients (r) between Lys to crude protein ratio and ileal digestibility of Lys or ileal digestible Lys in bakery meal fed to growing pigs (n = 11)

Item	Lys to crude protein ratio	P-value
Apparent ileal digestibility (%) of Lys	0.397	0.227
Apparent ileal digestible Lys, % of diet	0.720	0.012
Standardized ileal digestibility (%) of Lys	0.237	0.483
Standardized ileal digestible Lys, % of diet	0.727	0.011

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Discussion

The average dry matter (88.68%) in the 11 sources of bakery meal used in this experiment was in agreement with values (86.99 and 89.39) reported by Almeida et al. (2011) and Casas et al., (2015). In contrast, greater dry matter (91.82) was analyzed by Casas et al. (2018) and by Liu et al. (2018) who reported an average dry matter of 91.84% in 46 sources of bakery meal. These differences are likely a result of different drying intensities of the products included in the production of the bakery meals.

The average concentration of crude protein in the bakery meals used in this experiment (11.60%, as-fed basis) was in agreement with the average crude protein (12.20%, as-fed basis) reported by Liu et al (2018) and values (11.30% and 11.09%) reported by Almeida et al. (2011) and by Casas et al. (2018). Likewise, the average concentrations of Lys, Met, Thr, Trp, and Val (0.41%, 0.18%, 0.37%, 0.13%, and 0.55%, respectively, as-fed basis) analyzed in the 11 sources of bakery meal used in this experiment were close to values (i.e., 0.35%, 0.19%, 0.38%, 0.13%, and 0.55%, respectively, as-fed basis) reported by Liu et al. (2018). These values are also in agreement with Casas et al. (2018) who analyzed 0.38%, 0.17%, 0.38%, 0.12%, and 0.51% for Lys, Met, Thr, Trp, and Val, respectively, as-fed basis, whereas Almeida et al. (2011) reported a lower concentration of Lys (0.27%, as-fed basis), but values for Met (0. 18%, as-fed basis), Thr (0.36%, as-fed basis), Trp (0.10%, as-fed basis), and Val (0.52%, as-fed basis) that were in agreement with values obtained in this experiment. Slightly greater concentrations of Lys, Met, Thr, Trp, and Val (0.41%, 0.20%, 0.44%, 0.16%, and 0.62%, respectively, as-fed basis) have also been reported (Casas et al., 2015). However, it appears that concentrations of dry matter, crude protein, and AA in the 11 sources of bakery meal used in this experiment generally were within the range of values typically observed in commercial sources of bakery meal from the United States.

The SEM for the AID and SID of AA in the 11 sources of bakery meal that were used was close to the SEM usually obtained in AA digestibility experiments where 6 to 10 replications are used. The SEM is usually lower when more replications are included in an experiment, but that was not the case in this experiment, which is likely a result of additional variability being introduced by using four different universities to determine the digestibility of AA. An effort to minimize variability was made by mixing diets in only one batch and then distributing sub-batches to participating universities. Because twice as many replications as usually used in digestibility experiments were used in this experiment, it was possible to maintain an acceptable SEM for the AID and SID of AA despite conducting the experiment at four different universities.

Values for the SID of AA in bakery meal produced in the United States have been reported from three experiments (Almeida et al., 2011; Casas et al., 2015; 2018). However, in each of these experiments, only one source of bakery meal was included and to the best of our knowledge, this is the first time SID of AA in multiple sources of bakery meal is being reported. The average SID of indispensable AA (73.7%) that was observed in the current experiment represents a range from 60.4% to 81.8%. This range overlaps with the average SID of indispensable AA (78.5% and 69.1%) reported by Almeida et al. (2011) and Casas et al. (2018), whereas Casas et al. (2015) reported an average SID for indispensable AA of 86.8%. This relatively large range among values for the SID of indispensable AA in bakery meal indicates that it may be better to use an average value for SID of AA for bakery meal rather than using values from individual sources, unless the digestibility of the particular source used is known. The range for the average SID of indispensable AA in bakery meal obtained in this experiment is also much greater than what has been observed for other ingredients where the SID of AA in at least 10 sources of the same ingredient was determined [i.e., distillers dried grains with solubles (Stein et al., 2006; Kim et al., 2012); 00-rapeseed meal (Maison and Stein, 2014); soybean meal (Sotak-Peper et al., 2017); and wheat middlings (Casas and Stein, 2017)]. Likewise, the range among the 11 sources of bakery meal in SID for most of the individual AA was approximately 20 percentage units, which is also a greater range than what has been observed for other ingredients. These variations indicate that whereas producers of bakery meal appear to be efficient in blending different product streams to produce final products that have fairly constant chemical composition, the digestibility of AA is not constant among sources, which likely reflects different raw materials used in the blends. It is, however, also possible that differences in processing procedures, either by the producers of the bakery meal or the producers of the raw materials going into the bakery meal, may contribute to the differences in SID of AA that were observed.

For individual AA, the lowest SID was observed for Lys in all sources of bakery meal, which is in agreement with reported data (Almeida et al., 2011; Casas et al, 2015; 2018). This observation reflects that many of the ingredients used in bakery meal are heat processed in preparation for their primary use, which may have produced damage that reduced the digestibility of Lys, because overheating of an ingredient results in reduced digestibility of Lys (Almeida et al., 2013). Indeed, the digestibility of Lys in breakfast cereals is extremely low (Rutherfurd et al., 2015; Fanelli et al., 2021), and if breakfast cereals were included in some of the bakery meals used in the experiment, this may explain the low digestibility of Lys.

With the exception of one source of bakery meal, Thr had the second lowest SID value in all sources of bakery meal (after Lys). It is expected that Thr always has the lowest SID among indispensable AA due to the large concentration of Thr in mucin proteins, which make up the largest part of the endogenous AA. Indeed, pigs fed diets that result in increased losses of mucin, such as high fiber diets or diets that induce an immune system stimulation, have increased needs for Thr to compensate for the losses of Thr in mucin (Mathai et al., 2016; Wellington et al., 2018, 2019). The observation that the SID of Lys in all sources of bakery meal used in this experiment was less than the SID of Thr further indicates that the SID of Lys was reduced in these products, possibly due to heat damage.

The observation that there were differences among experiment stations for endogenous losses of some of the indispensable AA is in agreement with previous data (Stein et al., 2007). Whereas the reasons for the differences among experiments in basal endogenous losses of AA remain to be elucidated, the current data support the recommendation that basal endogenous losses should be determined in each experiment in which SID of AA is determined (Stein et al., 2007; NRC, 2012).

Calculation of the Lys to crude protein ratio is often used as an indication of heat damage in a feed ingredient because a lower ratio is an indication of overheating and damage to Lys (González-Vega et al., 2011). The Lys to crude protein ratios that were calculated for the 11 sources of bakery meal used in this experiment varied from 2.83 to 4.17. However, the lack of a correlation between the Lys to crude protein ratio and the SID of Lys indicates that this ratio cannot be used to indicate heat damage in bakery meal, which is likely because different raw materials with different Lys to crude protein ratios were used in the different meals. As an example, if soybean-based ingredients, which have high concentrations of Lys relative to crude protein, are included in the blend, the concentration of Lys in the resulting bakery meal will be high and the Lys to crude protein ratio will be high as well. However, if other ingredients are used in the product stream of bakery meal, a different Lys to crude protein ratio will be expected. As a consequence, the Lys to crude protein ratio in bakery meal cannot be used as an indicator of heat damage as is the case for homogenous ingredients.

Conclusions

The SID of AA in 11 sources of bakery meal collected in swine-producing states in the United States indicated that Lys has the lowest SID of all AA, which is most likely due to heat damage in some of the ingredients used to manufacture the bakery meals. It was further demonstrated that there is much more variability in the SID of individual AA in bakery meal than what is commonly observed for other ingredients, which is likely due to different raw materials being used in the production of the different sources of bakery meal. It, therefore, appears that although manufacturers of bakery meal are effective in producing products with constant chemical compositions, they are less effective in producing final products with constant AA digestibility. The relatively large variations in the SID of AA among sources of bakery meal and the low SID of Lys indicates that users of bakery meals may want to limit the inclusion rate of bakery meal in diets fed to pigs. Additionally, it is important that diets are balanced for digestible AA and that the low digestibility of Lys in bakery meal is compensated by inclusion of other sources of Lys in the diets.

Acknowledgments

Donation of the 11 sources of bakery meal from the vendors of the products is greatly appreciated. Project management and statistical analysis by Dr. Su A Lee (University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA) are also greatly appreciated.

Glossary

Abbreviations:

AA: amino acids
AID: apparent ileal digestibility
NCCC: North Central Coordinating Committee
SID: standardized ileal digestibility

Contributor Information

Hans H Stein, Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA.

Olayiwola Adeola, Department of Animal Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA.

Samuel K Baidoo, Department of Animal Sciences, University of Minnesota, Waseca, MN, USA.

Merlin D Lindemann, Department of Animal Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA.

Sunday A Adedokun, Department of Animal Sciences, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA.

North Central Coordinating Committee on Swine Nutrition (NCCC-42), Division of Nutritional Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA.

North Central Coordinating Committee on Swine Nutrition (NCCC-42):

M J Azain, S D Carter, T D Crenshaw, R Dilger, G M Hill, R Jha, B J Kerr, S W Kim, S Liao, Y Liu, P S Miller, J L Nelssen, J F Patience, M S Shannon, T Woyengo, and D Beitz

Conflict of Interest Statement

The authors have no conflicts of interest.

Other members of the NCCC-42 committee

M. J. Azain, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA; S. D. Carter, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, OK, USA; T. D. Crenshaw, University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI, USA; R. Dilger, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, IL, USA; G. M. Hill, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, USA; R. Jha, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA; B. J. Kerr, ARS-USDA, Ames, IA, USA; S. W. Kim, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA; S. Liao, Mississippi State University Starkville, MS, USA; Y. Liu, University of California, Davis, CA, USA; P. S. Miller, University Nebraska, Lincoln, NE, USA; J. L. Nelssen, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS, USA; J. F. Patience, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA; M. S. Shannon, University of Missouri, Columbus, MO, USA; T. Woyengo, South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD, USA. Administrative Advisor: D. Beitz, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA.

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PERMALINK

Standardized ileal digestibility of amino acids differs among sources of bakery meal when fed to growing pigs

Hans H Stein

Olayiwola Adeola

Samuel K Baidoo

Merlin D Lindemann

Sunday A Adedokun

Abstract

Introduction

Materials and methods

Animals, housing, diets, feeding, and sample collection

Table 1.

Table 2.

Table 3.

Sample analysis

Calculations and statistical analysis

Results

Table 4.

Table 5.

Table 6.

Table 7.

Discussion

Conclusions

Acknowledgments

Glossary

Abbreviations:

Contributor Information

Conflict of Interest Statement

Other members of the NCCC-42 committee

Literature Cited

ACTIONS

PERMALINK

RESOURCES

Cite

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PERMALINK

Standardized ileal digestibility of amino acids differs among sources of bakery meal when fed to growing pigs

Hans H Stein

Olayiwola Adeola

Samuel K Baidoo

Merlin D Lindemann

Sunday A Adedokun

Abstract

Introduction

Materials and methods

Animals, housing, diets, feeding, and sample collection

Table 1.

Table 2.

Table 3.

Sample analysis

Calculations and statistical analysis

Results

Table 4.

Table 5.

Table 6.

Table 7.

Discussion

Conclusions

Acknowledgments

Glossary

Abbreviations:

Contributor Information

Conflict of Interest Statement

Other members of the NCCC-42 committee

Literature Cited

ACTIONS

PERMALINK

RESOURCES

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