Abstract
This study explored the relationship between university students' exercise efficacy and behavioral intention to participate in winter sports. Using a self-efficacy scale, exercise motivation scale, satisfaction with life scale, and the theory of planned behavior questionnaire, the intentions and behaviors of 862 university students were investigated. Based on the Health Action Process Approach (HAPA) model and customer satisfaction theories, a model of the relationship between university students' exercise efficacy and behavioral intention was constructed. The results showed that there was a significantly positive correlation between sports efficacy, motivation, satisfaction, experience perception, and behavioral intention. Sports efficacy had a direct and positive effect on university students' behavioral intention to participate in winter sports (SE = 0.052, Z = 10.673 > 1.96, P = 0.000); The indirect effect of sports efficacy on behavioral intention via motivation and satisfaction was 0.077 (SE = 0.016, Z = 4.813 > 1.96, P = 0.000); the indirect effect of sports efficacy on behavioral intention via experience perception, motivation, and satisfaction was 0.037 (SE = 0.009, Z = 4.111 > 1.96, P = 0.000). Our results not only verify and expand on the HAPA and customer satisfaction theories but also highlight the need for interventions targeting university students' behavioral intention of participating in winter sports from the perspective of improving their sports efficacy, improving the perception of winter sports participation experience, and enhancing their motivation for engaging in exercise and satisfaction with exercise.
Keywords: University students, Winter sports, Behavioral intention
1. Introduction
With the enactment of relevant policies such as the “Development Plan of Winter Sports” [1], the “Guidance on Accelerating the Promotion of Winter Sports into Campus” [2]in China, Chinese university students' enthusiasm for participating in winter sports has increased. However, according to the Report on the Development of China's Ski Industry [3], most participants of winter sports were merely “experience oriented.” Beijing 2022 Winter Olympics has deepened the Chinese population's understanding of the winter sports culture.
Winter sports started late in China, and the problem of a weak foundation cannot be ignored, which may lead to a low awareness of winter sports and an obvious shortage of participants. From the perspective of physical fitness, leisure time, and the speed of accepting new things, university students constitute the main demographic participating in winter sports. Therefore, it is of great practical value to investigate the correlation between exercise efficacy and behavioral intentions of university students participating in winter sports in the post-Winter Olympics period to improve their participation in winter sports in the future. Existing studies have explored winter sports from the perspective of market segments [4], attitudes [5], loyalty [6], and market demand [7], while limited research has focused on behavioral intention. Besides, previous studies on consumers' behavioral intention have mainly focused on antecedents and consequences of behavioral intention [[8], [9], [10], [11], [12], [13]]. In addition, previous research on winter sports did not pay much attention to the participants' experience perception but rather classified it under the same dimension as satisfaction [[14], [15], [16]], ignoring the degree of psychological immersion, thinking feedback ability, flow state, etc. of university students in the process of participation; these aspects not only directly affect the motivation to participate but also indirectly weaken the behavioral intention by reducing experience perception. Therefore, the important intermediary role of “experience perception” contains immense theoretical value for further research on the behavioral intention pertaining to participation in sports. Hence, based on the Health Action Process Approach (HAPA) model [17] and customer satisfaction theory [18], this study constructed a theoretical model of university students' behavioral intention to participate in winter sports, aiming to clarify the relationship between exercise efficacy and behavioral intention of university students participating in winter sports and provide a theoretical basis for the formulation of students' winter sports participation strategies and guidance.
2. Literature review
2.1. Theoretical basis
2.1.1. HAPA theory
The HAPA model is based on Albert Bandura's research [19]. This model suggests that the adoption, initiation, and maintenance of health behavior can be conceptualized as a process involving “motivation generation” and “decision-making” stages [17,19]. In practical applications, HAPA theory subdivides health-related behavior changes into three stages: contingency, intention, and implementation. Since the theory was proposed, it has mostly been used to explain preventive health behaviors such as smoking/diet control, flossing, anti-cancer strategies, and physical exercise [20,21]. The application of this theory in the field of sports is mainly aimed at rehabilitation training of patients, and there is a lack of research involving healthy groups. However, regarding the use of the HAPA for the interpretation of exercise behavior and interventions, many horizontal and vertical studies have confirmed the theoretical hypothesis of the HAPA model in the process of intention and plan adjustment, and have also confirmed that gradual interventions can effectively change the exercise behavior of individuals in a specific period [[22], [23], [24]]. The problem of behavioral intention not translating into practical action can be addressed by the HAPA model. However, its deficiency is that the prediction variables related to “behavioral intention” do not fully consider the mechanism of social and environmental factors affecting sports behavior in practice, thus requiring further verification.
2.1.2. Customer satisfaction theory
The concept of customer satisfaction was first put forward in the middle and late parts of the last century [18]; it was stated that enhanced customer satisfaction could promote customers to engage in repeat consumer behavior. Since then, many researchers have been inspired by the theory of Cardozo, and the theory has gradually been attracting attention. Different scholars have put forward different explanations for customer satisfaction: Kotler [25] proposed that customer satisfaction was an obvious sense of happiness or loss felt by customers through the use or experience of products. Assael [26] proposed that consumers feel satisfied when they perceive that the actual consumption result of a certain commodity had reached its expected value. Thus far, customer satisfaction strategies have evolved into management methods centered on customer interests, with customer satisfaction as the ultimate goal. Western scholars have established many theoretical models to prove the rationality of the formation process of satisfaction, among which the expectation model is the most representative [27]. The expectation model proposed that “satisfaction” needs to be realized through the gap between the “expectation” before purchase and the “reality” after purchase. If the reality is higher than the expected value, the customer will be satisfied. Later, using the expectation mode for different research purposes, scholars also proposed the equity theory [28] and the performance model [29].
In this study, the satisfaction of participation in winter sports was defined as a kind of overall satisfaction, that is, the degree of comparison between the expectation before engaging in winter sports and the actual “experience perception” in the process of participation. From the above satisfaction theories, we can conclude that the factors affecting customer satisfaction include “expectation”, “feeling”, and “customer value”.
2.2. Hypotheses development
Based on the HAPA model and customer satisfaction theory, we introduced the construct of “experience perception”. The constructs in the conceptual model include exercise efficacy (EFF), motivation (MO), satisfaction (SAT), experience perception (EXP), and behavioral intention (BI).
2.2.1. Exercise efficacy and behavioral intention
Self-efficacy is a central component of social cognitive theory [19]. It is defined as an individual's perception of their ability to effectively control their own life and is the basis for generating behavioral intention, especially persistent behavior [19]. In other words, an individual's level of self-efficacy is positively correlated with the implementation of behaviors. According to some studies, individuals with high self-efficacy are more likely to overcome difficulties and insist on exercising [30]. In this study, exercise efficacy referred to the evaluation and perception of university students' overall ability to participate in winter sports.
Behavioral intention is a factor that directly affects behavior in the theory of planned behavior. However, in practice, the implementation of behavior is not only affected by many factors but may also restrict the generation of behavioral intention. There is a two-way relationship between behavior and behavioral intention. People can have beliefs about any specific behavioral object, but at specific moments, they can only focus on relatively few beliefs [31]. The behavioral intention studied in this paper mainly refers to the attitude and tendency of university students to participate in winter sports.
Schwarzer and Jerusalem [17]emphasize the application of self-efficacy in daily life and the stable state of individuals in daily life and work. This finding is consistent with that of Ajzen [32]. Specifically, it emphasizes that individual behavioral attitudes positively impact behavioral intentions. Therefore, in the context of winter sports, when students have a positive attitude towards their sports skills, they are more inclined to participate. Therefore, improvements in exercise efficacy will have a positive impact on university students' behavioral intention to participate in winter sports.
2.2.2. Experience perception
Experience can be viewed as an individual's subjective psychological state [33], which cannot be touched but can be shared and spread. A sense of experience is the sum of the benefits included in the activities of enterprises providing cultural entertainment, different from reality, and enjoyable visual cues to customers [34]. The product is the quality of service that forms and enriches the consumer experience [35]. Therefore, what the participants really want is for the experience of participating in winter sports to be consistent with the expectations set in their minds, not the product itself. Hence, the sense of experience should emphasize the psychological state of an individual after participating in sports.
2.2.3. Motivation
According to Lowry et al. [36], happiness positively affects behavioral intention. In areas with strong internal motivation such as games, happiness plays an important role in increasing immersion. It can be concluded that the more happiness people experience in winter sports, the greater their willingness to participate in winter sports again. Simultaneously, as university students gain more fun and a sense of achievement through winter sports, their attention and immersion in winter sports will increase. Therefore, it can be inferred that experience perception positively impacts the motivation to engage in winter sports. Therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed:
Hypothesis 1
(H1): The exercise efficacy of university students who participate in winter sports has a positive impact on their behavioral intentions.
Hypothesis 2
(H2): The exercise efficacy of university students participating in winter sports positively impacts their perceptions of the experience.
Hypothesis 3
(H3): The exercise efficacy of university students participating in winter sports has a positive impact on their motivation to engage in winter sports.
Hypothesis 4
(H4): University students' experiences of participating in winter sports have a positive impact on motivation.
2.2.4. Satisfaction
The degree of satisfaction with sports participation depends on the degree of psychological pleasure and satisfaction experienced by individuals after sports participation or watching games. This is an important aspect of sports psychology and sports industry research because the degree of satisfaction is of great significance for evaluating the effect of participation and generating sustainable participation [37]. Iso-Ahola et al. [38] first proposed that leisure motivation changes over time, and later put forward two basic motivations for individuals participating in leisure sports: pursuit and escape. People's wholehearted involvement in a behavioral activity produces an overall feeling of selflessness, which can subtly affect the subjective feeling and satisfaction of individual happiness [39]. Participants may have extensive experience in various activities, such as mountaineering, boating, and dancing. Referring to Chen's [40] study, satisfaction in this research refers to college students' overall satisfaction generated throughout the whole process of winter sports, which includes both front-end services such as booking tickets to ski resorts, and back-end services such as return transportation after winter sports. According to research by Backman & Crompton [41] and Kim et al. [42], students' leisure motivation is positively correlated with their satisfaction. According to the expectation-disconfirmation theory [43], the satisfaction depends on whether customers' actual experiences are perceived in line with their expectations [44]. After participating in winter sports, college students compare their experience with their expectations, which may result in a disconfirmation [45]. The emotional response caused by this disconfirmation leads to college students' satisfaction or dissatisfaction. For example, those whose experience perception is lower than their expectations will feel dissatisfied, and vice versa. However, there are still limited studies on the relationship between satisfaction and experience perception. Therefore, the following hypotheses are proposed:
Hypothesis 5
(H5): The motivation of university students to participate in winter sports positively impacts their participation satisfaction.
Hypothesis 6
(H6): The satisfaction of university students participating in winter sports has a positive impact on their behavioral intentions.
Hypothesis 7
(H7): University students' experience of participating in winter sports has a positive impact on their satisfaction.
The conceptual model of this study is shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1.
Conceptual model.
3. Method
3.1. Study design
The questionnaire used in this study was based on relevant literature and scales tested for reliability and validity. It included questions on five dimensions: exercise motivation, satisfaction, experience perception, exercise efficacy, and behavioral intention, which are based on the self-efficacy scale developed by Schwarzer and Jerusalem [46], the overall life satisfaction scale developed by Pavot and Diener [47], the leisure motivation scale developed by Gwang [48], and the theory of planned behavior questionnaire by Ajzen [49]. Due to research needs, the questions not related to this study were eliminated from those scales, and questions related to the motivation for winter sports were added to obtain a questionnaire that was conducive to the progress of this study. The participants were required to score the questionnaire items on a Likert 7-point scale. Analysis of the internal consistency of the questionnaire showed that it had good reliability and validity (Cronbach's α = 0.967, Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin statistic = 0.963).
3.2. Participants
This study was conducted by distributing online questionnaires to college students through Wenjuanxing (www.wjx.cn), a widely accepted online questionnaire survey platform in China. The first part of the questionnaire did state that the responses collected from the participants would be used for research purposes only and remain confidential. Prior to the survey, we obtained approval from the ethics committee. Information identifying individual participants was not available to us during or after data collection. A total of 862 questionnaires were distributed in November 2022, of which 755 were validly returned with a valid response rate of 87.6% (Table 1). There were 399 male students (52.8%) and 356 female students (47.2%) in the recovered questionnaires; the ratio of male to female was balanced. In terms of grade distribution, freshman students accounted for the most (253, 33.5%), senior students accounted for the least (31, 4.1%).
Table 1.
Demographic characteristics (N = 755).
| Measure | Item | Count | % |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sex | Male | 399 | 52.8 |
| Female | 356 | 47.2 | |
| total | 755 | 100 | |
| Grade | Freshman | 253 | 33.5 |
| Sophomore | 173 | 22.9 | |
| Junior | 213 | 28.2 | |
| Senior | 31 | 4.1 | |
| Master and above | 85 | 11.3 | |
| total | 755 | 100 |
3.3. Statistic analysis
The main purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between sports efficacy (EFF), motivation (MO), satisfaction (SAT), experience perception (EXP), and behavioral intention (BI) of college students during their participation in winter sports. Based on the HAPA model and customer satisfaction theory, this study discusses the direct and indirect relationships among the five constructs in the research model of college students' intention to participate in winter sports. The data statistical analysis methods used mainly include: (i) statistical and analysis of the questionnaire using SPSS 26.0, descriptive statistical analysis of gender, grade and each variable of college students using mean and standard deviation; (ii) reliability test according to Kaiser [50], the degree of consistency was tested by Cronbach's α values; (iii) The validity tests in this study mainly include convergent validity and discriminant validity, and the KMO sampling appropriateness test and Bartlett's sphericity test were conducted; (iv) AMOS 24.0 was used to construct the relationship between the variables and to test the research hypotheses and mediating effects.
4. Results
4.1. Reliability and validity tests
SPSS26.0 was used for exploratory factor analysis. According to the suggestion of Hair et al. [51], the principal component method was used, and the rotation method of Caesar's normalized maximum variance method was used. Questions with factor loads less than 0.60 were deleted, so the questions MO1, SAT1, SAT2, SAT3, EFF1, BI1, BI3, and BI7 were excluded. A total of 31 valid questions were retained. The results showed that the factor load for each scale was between 0.608 and 0.825.
The results of the reliability test showed that Cronbach's α values of all scales were between 0.883 and 0.931; the composition reliability was between 0.850 and 0.897, and the average variance extracted (AVE) of all the scales was between 0.636 and 0.742 (Table 2, Table 3). According to Fornell and Larcker [52], factor reliability should be greater than 0.60, and the AVE value should be greater than 0.50. Therefore, all five scales met these standards.
Table 2.
Measurement model.
| Construct Research | Code item |
Parameter |
Reliability of item |
Composite reliability |
Average variance extracted |
|||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| significance estimate |
||||||||||
| Unstd. | S.E. | Z-Value | P | Std. | SMC | CR | AVE | |||
| EFF | EFF3 | EFF | 1.000 | 0.698 | 0.488 | 0.874 | 0.636 | |||
| EFF6 | EFF | 1.369 | 0.064 | 21.268 | *** | 0.859 | 0.737 | |||
| EFF7 | EFF | 1.368 | 0.069 | 19.773 | *** | 0.788 | 0.621 | |||
| EFF8 | EFF | 1.195 | 0.057 | 20.829 | *** | 0.836 | 0.700 | |||
| MO | MO7 | MO | 1.000 | 0.842 | 0.710 | 0.850 | 0.654 | |||
| MO6 | MO | 0.882 | 0.038 | 23.401 | *** | 0.793 | 0.629 | |||
| MO5 | MO | 0.904 | 0.039 | 23.274 | *** | 0.789 | 0.623 | |||
| BI | BI2 | BI | 1.000 | 0.780 | 0.608 | 0.862 | 0.676 | |||
| BI6 | BI | 0.991 | 0.043 | 23.166 | *** | 0.814 | 0.662 | |||
| BI8 | BI | 1.104 | 0.045 | 24.712 | *** | 0.871 | 0.758 | |||
| SAT | SAT4 | SAT | 1.000 | 0.754 | 0.568 | 0.897 | 0.685 | |||
| SAT6 | SAT | 1.275 | 0.053 | 23.981 | *** | 0.849 | 0.720 | |||
| SAT7 | SAT | 1.230 | 0.049 | 25.024 | *** | 0.884 | 0.782 | |||
| SAT8 | SAT | 1.105 | 0.048 | 23.031 | *** | 0.818 | 0.670 | |||
| EXP | EXP1 | EXP | 1.000 | 0.889 | 0.790 | 0.896 | 0.742 | |||
| EXP2 | EXP | 1.004 | 0.030 | 33.025 | *** | 0.907 | 0.823 | |||
| EXP3 | EXP | 0.824 | 0.031 | 26.617 | *** | 0.782 | 0.611 | |||
Note: ***P < 0.001.
Table 3.
Discriminatory validity.
| Dimension | Average variance extracted |
Pearson correlation and Discriminatory validity |
||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| AVE | EFF | MO | BI | SAT | EXP | |
| EFF | 0.636 | 0.798 | ||||
| MO | 0.654 | 0.530 | 0.809 | |||
| BI | 0.676 | 0.716 | 0.599 | 0.822 | ||
| SAT | 0.685 | 0.506 | 0.663 | 0.657 | 0.828 | |
| EXP | 0.742 | 0.497 | 0.540 | 0.509 | 0.612 | 0.861 |
The square roots of the diagonal AVE values in the table (indicated in bold) were larger than the correlation coefficients between the dimensions indicated below the diagonal values. Therefore, there was a significant difference in validity among the dimensions (Table 3). Hence, the questionnaire met the ideal reliability and convergent validity criteria.
4.2. Fitness test of the measurement model
The better the model fit, the closer the sample data and the model matrix [53]. As shown in Table 4, the fitness index in this study mainly refers to the suggestions of Hair et al. [51]. The comparative fit index, incremental fit index, non-normed fit index, and normed fit index were all greater than 0.9, indicating the good fitness of this model.
Table 4.
Index table of SEM model fitness.
| Model fitting degree | Standard | Actual fitting degree of model | Model fitting judgment |
|---|---|---|---|
| ML χ2 | As small as possible | 413.553 | Reach standard |
| df | As small as possible | 112 | Reach standard |
| Normed Chi-sqr (χ2/df) | 1 < χ2/df < 5 | 3.692 | Reach standard |
| SRMR | <0.08 | 0.053 | Reach standard |
| GFI | >0.9 | 0.940 | Reach standard |
| AGFI | >0.9 | 0.917 | Reach standard |
| RMSEA | <0.08 | 0.060 | Reach standard |
| NFI | 0.9 | 0.952 | Reach standard |
| TLI (NNFI) | >0.9 | 0.957 | Reach standard |
| CFI | >0.9 | 0.964 | Reach standard |
| IFI | >0.9 | 0.964 | Reach standard |
4.3. Hypotheses test
Seven hypotheses were tested in the conceptual model, all of which were supported. The results are presented in Fig. 2 and Table 5. H1: exercise efficacy has a positive impact on behavioral intention of winter sports (β = 0.524, p < 0.001); H2: exercise efficacy has a positive impact on experience perception of winter sports (β = 0.502, p < 0.001); H3: exercise efficacy has a positive impact on winter sports motivation (β = 0.368, p < 0.001); H4: experience perception has a positive impact on winter sports motivation (β = 0.356, p < 0.001); H5: winter sports motivation has a positive impact on satisfaction (β = 0.483, p < 0.001); H6: satisfaction from winter sports has a positive impact on behavioral intention of winter sports (β = 0.408, p < 0.001); H7: experience perception has a positive impact on the satisfaction of winter sports (β = 0.354, p < 0.001).
Fig. 2.
Measurement and structural model analysis.
Table 5.
Outcomes of structural equation modeling analysis (N = 755).
| Hypothesis | Path | Path coefficient (β) | S.E. | C.R. | P | Supported? |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| H1 | EFF → BI | 0.524 | 0.044 | 12.519 | *** | Yes |
| H2 | EFF → EXP | 0.502 | 0.061 | 12.006 | *** | Yes |
| H3 | EFF → MO | 0.368 | 0.057 | 8.302 | *** | Yes |
| H4 | EXP → MO | 0.356 | 0.038 | 8.437 | *** | Yes |
| H5 | MO → SAT | 0.483 | 0.028 | 11.216 | *** | Yes |
| H6 | SAT → BI | 0.408 | 0.048 | 10.896 | *** | Yes |
| H7 | EXP → SAT | 0.354 | 0.023 | 8.956 | *** | Yes |
Note: ***P < 0.001.
4.4. Analysis of the intermediary effect
The Sobel Z-test was used to test the intermediary effect. Table 6 presents the results. The direct effect of exercise efficacy on behavioral intention was 0.555 (SE = 0.052, Z = 10.673 > 1.96, P = 0.000 < 0.05), and the upper and lower limits of the 95% confidence interval did not contain 0, so the direct effect of H1 was verified.
Table 6.
Intermediary effect test table.
| Relationships |
Point estimate |
Product of coefficient |
Bootstrap 5000 times 95% CI |
|||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bias-corrected |
Percentile |
|||||||
| SE | Z | Lower | Upper | Lower | Upper | P | ||
| Indirect Effects | ||||||||
| EFF → MO → SAT → BI | 0.077 | 0.016 | 4.813 | 0.050 | 0.114 | 0.048 | 0.110 | 0.000 |
| EFF → EXP → MO → SAT → BI | 0.037 | 0.009 | 4.111 | 0.022 | 0.060 | 0.021 | 0.058 | 0.000 |
| EFF → EXP → SAT → BI | 0.077 | 0.015 | 5.133 | 0.053 | 0.111 | 0.051 | 0.108 | 0.000 |
| Total IE | 0.191 | 0.026 | 7.346 | 0.146 | 0.250 | 0.144 | 0.247 | 0.000 |
| Direct Effect | ||||||||
| DE | 0.555 | 0.052 | 10.673 | 0.457 | 0.663 | 0.454 | 0.660 | 0.000 |
| Total Effect | ||||||||
| TE | 0.747 | 0.051 | 14.647 | 0.650 | 0.848 | 0.649 | 0.847 | 0.000 |
| Contrasts | ||||||||
| MO-(EXP-MO) | 0.040 | 0.016 | 2.500 | 0.012 | 0.075 | 0.009 | 0.072 | 0.010 |
| MO-EXP | 0.000 | 0.023 | 0.000 | −0.044 | 0.045 | −0.046 | 0.044 | 0.969 |
| (MO-SAT)-SAT | −0.040 | 0.016 | −2.500 | −0.072 | −0.011 | −0.071 | −0.010 | 0.015 |
The effect size of the indirect effect of exercise efficacy on behavioral intention through exercise motivation and satisfaction was 0.077 (SE = 0.016, Z = 4.813 > 1.96, P = 0.000 < 0.05), and the upper and lower limits of 95% confidence interval did not contain 0, so the indirect effect was verified, indicating that the exercise efficacy had an intermediary effect on behavioral intention through exercise motivation and satisfaction. The effect size of the indirect effect of exercise efficacy on behavioral intention through experience perception, exercise motivation and satisfaction was 0.037 (SE = 0.009, Z = 4.111 > 1.96, P = 0.000 < 0.05), and the upper and lower limits of 95% confidence interval did not contain 0, so the indirect effect was verified, indicating that exercise efficacy had an intermediary effect on behavioral intention through experience perception, exercise motivation, and satisfaction. The effect size of the indirect effect of exercise efficacy on behavioral intention through experience perception and satisfaction was 0.077 (SE = 0.015, Z = 5.133 > 1.96, P = 0.000 < 0.05), and the upper and lower limits of the 95% confidence interval did not contain 0. Thus, the indirect effect was verified, indicating the intermediary effect of exercise efficacy on behavioral intention through experience perception and satisfaction.
5. Discussion
Based on the HAPA model and customer satisfaction theory, this study adds the dimension of “experience perception” to investigate Chinese university students' behavioral intention to participate in winter sports. The results showed that the greater the motivation of students and the better their experience perception and satisfaction as they participated in winter sports, the stronger their behavioral intention to participate in winter sports.
Through reliability and validity analysis, measurement model fitting, hypothesis testing, and intermediary effect analysis, the factors influencing university students' behavioral intentions to participate in winter sports were analyzed. In the structural equation model, the path coefficient was satisfied (β > 0.2, P < 0.05), and there were significantly positive correlations among the seven hypotheses. According to model analysis, (H1) “sports effectiveness versus behavioral intention” (β = 0.524 * * *), (H2) “Perception of exercise efficacy on experience” (β = 0.502 * * *), (H3) “Sport Effectiveness vs Sport Motivation” (β = 0.368 * * *), (H4) “Experience perception and movement motivation” (β = 0.356 * * *), (H5) “Sports motivation and satisfaction” (β = 0.483 * * *), (H6) “Satisfaction vs. behavioral intention” (β = 0.408 * * *), and (H7) “Experience perception and satisfaction” (β = 0.354 * * *) showed significantly positive effects on behavioral intention. This is consistent with previous studies [[54], [55], [56], [57], [58], [59], [60]]. However, this study confirmed that there was no significant correlation between exercise motivation and behavioral intention, which is inconsistent with the findings of previous studies. For example, Chatzisarantis and Biddle [61] showed that the higher an individual's autonomous motivation, the stronger the behavioral intention. On this basis, Duan et al. found that different motivations had different effects on behavioral intention by studying the motivation of marathon spectators, with arousal and transfer motivation having significant effects on behavioral intention and socialization motivation having insignificant effects on behavioral intention [62]. The different results may be due to other nonlinear relations between the two variables because SEM is based on the correlation coefficient, which only reflects linear relations; thus, the analysis of nonlinear relations requires further study.
Analysis of the mediating effects of the model indicated that sports efficacy had a mediating effect on behavioral intention through motivation, and satisfaction, which is consistent with previous findings [[63], [64], [65], [66], [67], [68]]. In addition, this study further confirmed experience perception as a mediating variable between sports efficacy and behavioral intention, which should provide novel insights into research on behavioral intention of sports. University students' intentions to participate in winter sports were closely related to their experiences and perceptions of winter sports. If the process of participating in winter sports brings self-worth and fun, then it is easy for them to engage in winter sports again. In contrast, if a sport cannot stimulate the satisfaction of the students, their behavioral intention to participate in winter sports will be low. Therefore, to encourage university students to actively and continuously participate in winter sports, initiatives should focus on the germination of their curiosity and desire for winter sports.
This study confirmed that exercise motivation, experience perception, and satisfaction as mediating variables had significant causal mediating effects on behavioral intention. Among them, EFF → MO → SAT → BI and EFF → EXP → SAT → BI had the same explanatory power. Among the mediating variables, exercise efficacy, with the least explanatory power, was related to behavioral intention through experience perception, motivation, and satisfaction. The reason for this might be that experience perception is the most direct and essential internal “heart flow” state produced by individuals in the process of participating in sports [69]. In a similar light, Csikszentmihalyi sees experience perception as narrowing the focus of awareness when people focus on the activity being performed, filtering out irrelevant perceptions by losing control of the target and environment [69]. Specifically, when university students perceive themselves as being fused with the winter sports they participate in, they focus more on the sports themselves, resulting in the occurrence of high satisfaction and experience perception, and this strengthens their intention to continue participating in such behavior.
However, previous research on winter sports rarely involved the experience perception of participants but rather classified it as the same dimension as satisfaction [[70], [71], [72]], ignoring the degree of psychological immersion, thinking ability, and flow state of students in the process of participation that not only directly affect the enthusiasm of students to participate but also indirectly weaken their behavioral intention by reducing their experience perception. Therefore, testing the important intermediary role of experience perception provides a new viewpoint for further research on the behavioral intention of winter sports.
6. Conclusion and suggestions
Through the construction and analysis of a structural equation model and empirical testing, this study found that the exercise efficacy of university students participating in winter sports had a direct impact on their behavioral intention (H1). Experience perception, exercise motivation, and satisfaction had partial mediating effects on students' exercise efficacy and behavioral intention. The influence of “exercise efficacy” on “behavioral intention” through “exercise motivation” and “satisfaction” had the same explanatory power as that through “experience perception” and “satisfaction”. Among the intermediary variables, the least explanatory power of exercise efficacy was through experience perception, motivation, satisfaction, and behavioral intention.
By examining the important prerequisites of sport efficacy, the important role of motivation and satisfaction, and the key position of experience perception, this paper puts forward the following suggestions to promote college students' participation in winter sports. First, develop diversified winter sports events, so as to satisfy the diversified motivations of a large number of potential winter sports enthusiasts and students. To satisfy the motivations such as achieving honors, various forms of winter sports events or competitions should be held to attract more college students to participate, so as to achieve a long development. Besides, event organizers could try to add more fun and functionality to the events to gain students' attention. For example, organizing fun competitions that are suitable for all the students to participate in to boost social engagement. Second, create an interactive atmosphere for winter sports' participants to let them have a better immersion experience, so as to enhance their perceived value and behavioral intention of sports participants. Specifically, service quality is necessary linked to participants’ immersion experience and perceived value of winter sports [73].
This study focuses on the participation of winter sports from the perspective of college students. Detailed conclusions and suggestions were provided for the promotion and development of winter sports among college student groups. Further studies could analyze the behavior patterns of other groups or refine the geographical area of college students.
7. Limitation
Based on the HAPA model and customer satisfaction theory, this study conforms to the integrity and precision of the establishment of research objects and topics, literature collection and collation, research assumptions, and theoretical model establishment. However, this study had limitations in terms of sample size and questionnaire distribution; future research should address these limitations and examine the hypotheses in an in-depth and rigorous manner.
This study mainly considered university students as the research objects and examined the behavioral intentions for winter sports. The sample size of 755 participants was limited from the perspective of representing Chinese university students. Owing to the limitations in questionnaire dissemination, the participants were mostly freshmen, and the sample size of senior students was small. Further studies could expand the research region, analyze groups other than students, and optimize questionnaire design and model construction.
Author contribution statement
Baoxia Chen: Analyzed and interpreted the data; Wrote the paper.
Song Han: Analyzed and interpreted the data; Contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools or data.
Hongshen Wang: Performed the experiments; Wrote the paper.
Xia Huang: Contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools or data.
Fang Wang: Conceived and designed the experiments; Wrote the paper.
Funding statements
This work was supported by the [National Social Science Fund of China] under Grant [number 21BTY065].
Data availability statement
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, F. W., upon reasonable request.
Additional information
No additional information is available for this paper.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgments
None.
Abbreviations
- HAPA
Health Action Process Approach
- EFF
exercise efficacy
- MO
motivation
- SAT
satisfaction
- EXP
experience perception
- BI
behavioral intention
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Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
Data Availability Statement
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, F. W., upon reasonable request.