Abstract
幽门螺杆菌(Hp)可以在人群中广泛传播,并会引发一系列的胃肠道疾病甚至胃癌。不同基因型的Hp感染可能会引发不同类型的疾病,而基因分型技术是研究这类问题的重要方法。本文主要介绍了多位点序列分型、脉冲场凝胶电泳、随机扩增多态DNA、扩增片段长度多态性和全基因组测序这五种基因分型技术,通过综述这几种技术在Hp基因分型中的应用进展,比较它们之间的优缺点,为今后研究Hp的致病机制、传播机制以及流行病学调查提供方法学依据。
Abstract
Helicobacter pylori (Hp) is widely disseminated in human, and Hp infection causes various gastrointestinal diseases, including gastric cancer. Different genotypes of Hp may cause different diseases, so the genotyping is important for clinical and basic research of Hp. This article introduces the methods for Hp genotyping, including multilocus sequence typing, pulsed-field gel electrophoresis, random amplified polymorphic DNA, amplified fragment length polymorphism, and whole-genome sequencing. By reviewing the application of these techniques in Hp genotyping and comparing their advantages and disadvantages, the article provides a theoretical basis for research into the pathogenesis, antibiotic resistance, and epidemiology of Hp infection.
Keywords: Helicobacter pylori; Genotype; Sequence tagged sites; Electrophoresis, gel, pulsed-field; Polymorphism, restriction fragment length; Random amplified polymorphic DNA technique; Polymerase chain reaction; Genome, bacterial; Review
幽门螺杆菌( Helicobacter pylori, Hp)是在人胃黏膜中发现的微需氧菌,是一种比较常见的病原体 [ 1- 2] ,不仅与胃炎、消化性溃疡、十二指肠溃疡和胃腺癌等胃肠道疾病的发病相关,还可能与心血管、皮肤、神经、免疫、血液、肝、胆、呼吸、内分泌和代谢紊乱等胃肠道外疾病存在关联 [ 3- 5] 。一般认为,Hp在胃内定植是致病的前提。首先,Hp由鞭毛介导向胃上皮细胞运动,其中FlaA和FlaB两种鞭毛蛋白的表达是细菌运动所必需的 [ 6] ;再通过分泌黏附素如HapA、BabA和SabA等,与宿主细胞上的受体相互作用,使细菌能够长期附着于胃黏膜表面;最后利用CagA和VacA等多种致病因子作为胃肠道疾病发生的效应蛋白导致宿主组织损害,最终引起一系列胃肠道疾病甚至胃癌 [ 7] 。Hp不同菌株中 cagA、 vacA和 babA等基因在核苷酸序列上的差异表现出基因多态性,这些具有基因多态性的致病因子与宿主、环境之间相互作用, 从而引发不同类型的疾病 [ 8- 9] 。
目前关于Hp的很多问题尚未得到解决,例如Hp在胃内属于多克隆感染还是单克隆感染,其具体的传播途径是什么等,需要我们借助现代分子生物学手段从分子水平甚至基因水平研究。目前,Hp基因分型方法主要有多位点序列分型(multilocus sequence typing,MLST)、脉冲场凝胶电泳(pulsed field gel electrophoresis,PFGE)、随机扩增多态性DNA(random amplified polymorphic DNA,RAPD)、扩增片段长度多态性(amplified fragment length polymorphism,AFLP)和全基因组测序(whole genome sequencing,WGS)。本文介绍上述方法并综述其在Hp研究中应用的进展。
MLST技术是由多位点酶电泳衍生出来的一种分型方法。该分型方法通过PCR扩增多个管家基因并测定其核酸序列,从而分析菌株的变异。鉴于Hp独特的遗传变异性和种内多样性,在进行Hp分型时一般选择 atpA、 efp、 mutY、 ppa、 trpC、 ureI和 yphC这七个管家基因进行扩增测序 [ 10- 11] 。与其他分子生物学技术相比,MLST具有高重复性和高分辨率的优点,且在一定程度上可以提供比人类遗传学分析更详细的人类迁移信息 [ 12- 13] 。
Yamaoka等 [ 14] 采用MLST技术将全球Hp确定为七种现代种群类型(hpEurope、hpEastAsia、hpAfrica1、hpAfrica2、hpAsia2、hpNEAfrica、hpSahul)和六种祖先种群类型(ancestral EastAsia、ancestral Africa1、ancestral Africa2、ancestral Europe1、ancestral Europe2、ancestra Sahul),不同地区的不同种群类型可以为绘制人类迁移模式提供证据。Raaf等 [ 15] 利用MLST技术对阿尔及利亚地区的Hp进行系统地理特征鉴定,结果发现38例患者的42株Hp可分为hpEurope和hpNEAfrica两种类型。MLST用于研究Hp的传播途径也可以获得理想的结果。Osaki等 [ 16] 采用MLST技术对来自粪便标本的Hp进行基因分型,研究结果提示三个家庭中至少有两个怀疑存在母婴传播,一个怀疑存在父婴传播。之后该研究者同时利用MLST和RAPD技术评估来自五个家庭的19株Hp的基因图谱,发现五个家庭中有3例患者提示携带两类或更多类型的Hp菌株,4例患者提示存在Hp母婴传播,2例患者提示存在父婴传播,1例为兄弟姐妹之间的传播 [ 17] 。综上所述,MLST技术可以用于Hp的传播途径研究和溯源分析,但其分析过程比较复杂,需借助生物信息学方法与质控菌株逐一比对 [ 16] ,同时该技术仅反映Hp某几个管家基因的变异性,存在一定的局限性。
PFGE是1984年由Schwartz和Cantor发明用于分离大片段(30~50 kb)线状DNA的技术。目前PFGE技术已经广泛应用于细菌分型。PFGE实验流程一般包括制备含DNA的包埋胶、胶内DNA酶切和脉冲电泳。Hp存在内源性甲基化酶的保护,其基因组DNA不易被限制性内切酶消化,何种限制性内切酶最适合用于Hp目前尚无定论。Hosaka等 [ 18] 发现,选用 EcoRⅠ进行两次限制性内切酶反应,每次反应时间16 h,其分型率能达到97%以上,比其他限制性内切酶的酶切效果好。另外,其他限制性内切酶如 XbaⅠ在36 ℃下酶切4 h能取得良好的实验结果 [ 19] ; NotⅠ、 NruⅠ在37 ℃下酶切和 SmaⅠ在25 ℃下酶切也适用于Hp [ 20] 。同种酶对不同Hp菌株的酶切效果也会不一样。Nada等 [ 21] 研究12例Hp根除治疗失败患者治疗前与治疗后胃窦内Hp菌株的差异,共分离出24株Hp用PFGE技术鉴定,在用 NotⅠ、 NruⅠ和 SmaⅠ酶切时发现,其中有8株(33%)的DNA不能用 NotⅠ酶切,6株(25%)不能用 NruⅠ酶切,19株(79%)不能用 SmaⅠ酶切。此外,除了选择合适的内切酶,对酶切条件(时间和温度)和样本浓度的控制也很重要,若样本的浓度不够,会导致实验结果的条带不明显;若浓度过高,则会造成条带拖尾 [ 22] 。
Falsafi等 [ 19] 利用PFGE技术鉴定四个不同时期(1997—1999年、2001—2003年、2005—2007年和2007—2009年)共44株从无亲缘关系的伊朗儿童胃窦黏膜组织中分离出的Hp菌株,根据结果推断这些儿童为多克隆感染。Han等 [ 20] 利用PFGE技术鉴定了来自德国九个家族27名成员分离得到的59株Hp。这些来自于胃体、胃窦、十二指肠的菌株最终鉴定为21个克隆类型,每人只有一个克隆类型,偶尔有一个克隆变体;相同克隆类型菌株总是发生在兄弟姐妹之间或母亲与其子代之间,但是未发现相同克隆类型菌株存在于夫妻之间。
总之,虽然PFGE技术长期以来一直被认为是细菌分型的金标准 [ 23] ,但是尚未广泛应用于Hp的分型中,限制性内切酶的选择以及酶切条件的控制对于该技术在Hp分型中的应用十分关键,仍需进一步探索。
RAPD是20世纪90年代在PCR的基础上发明的一种可对整个未知序列基因组进行多态性分析的分型技术。RAPD不仅具有常规PCR所具有的优点,而且只需要微量DNA即可进行分析,既不需要预先知道基因组序列,也不需要专门设计扩增的引物。如果选择的引物合理,Hp基因组扩增后可以获得3~10个DNA片段,且通常每个菌株产生的片段图谱不相同 [ 24] 。RAPD技术实施有四个条件:①进行PCR扩增时,引物3′端的碱基必须与目标DNA序列相匹配;②基因组DNA中成对的偶合位点彼此间距须小于3 kb;③第一轮产物有效持续扩增;④不同的菌株扩增产物不同。 表 1列出了一系列针对Hp的RAPD引物,这些引物对菌株的区分率均达到99%以上,其中引物1254和1283对于鉴别混合感染具有较高的敏感度 [ 25] 。RAPD扩增产物的凝胶图像经溴化乙锭染色可通过柯达数码科技的一维图像分析软件进行分析,利用该软件可得知条带的相对分子质量。需要注意的是,为提高实验结果的可重复性,保证检测体系的稳定性,应该使用标准菌株Hp 26695作为对照 [ 26] ,并且实验条件如DNA模板浓度、Tap聚合酶、引物以及PCR参数都需要严格控制 [ 27] 。
表1 幽门螺杆菌随机扩增多态性DNA分型引物及其区分率
Table 1 Primers and discrimination rates for random amplified polymorphic DNA in genotyping of Helicobacter pylori
引物名称 |
序列(5′→3′) |
区分率(%) |
1281 [ 28] |
AACGCGCAAC |
100 |
1254 [ 29] |
CCGCAGCCAA |
99 |
1247 [ 28] |
AAGAGCCCGT |
99 |
1283 [ 29] |
GCGATCCCCA |
— |
1290 [ 24] |
GTGGATGCGA |
— |
“—”无相关数据.
Konno等 [ 30] 用RAPD技术研究了42例平均年龄为11.7岁的Hp感染者,发现32例(76%)显示出与至少一名家族成员有相同的DNA指纹图谱,其中29例(69%)的DNA指纹图谱与母亲相似,该研究为Hp的母婴传播途径提供了有力证据。母婴传播是Hp家庭内传播的主要途径 [ 31] ,但是否存在其他传播途径有待证实。除此之外,RAPD技术还可以检查单个宿主的Hp感染是否存在克隆多样性。Toita等 [ 32] 研究了31例接受上消化道内窥镜检查的日本患者,从活检标本(胃窦、胃体、十二指肠)和胃液中分离获得104株Hp(每例患者4株),发现来自每例患者的分离株的RAPD指纹图谱非常相似甚至相同,并且间隔5~9年获得的分离株同样显示非常相似或相同的RAPD图谱,提示这部分人群为Hp单克隆感染。但韩国学者Kim等 [ 33] 采用RAPD技术对19例Hp感染者的104株Hp进行分析,结果表明约60%的患者存在Hp多克隆感染。RAPD图谱可以比较容易地区分Hp菌株之间的差异,且区分率高,但是这种方法无法提供任何关于菌株毒力特性和遗传进化信息。
AFLP是在PCR基础上发展起来的一种分子标记技术,最初用于农作物的分型,后来广泛用于植物、动物和原核生物的分型。一个完整的AFLP实验流程大约需要3 d:用Gel Compare凝胶分析软件对电泳图谱进行分析处理,DNA片段采用二进制形式按大小进行编码,用Dice系数评估相似性,计算结果为100%则定义为相同型 [ 34] 。Gibson等 [ 35] 采用AFLP技术对Hp进行基因分型时选择 HindⅢ酶切(识别位点为A↓AGCTT)Hp基因组DNA,并使用引物H1-A(5′-GGTATGCGACAGAGCTTA-3′),获得了理想的实验结果,且不需要昂贵的实验试剂和设备。有研究者同时选用引物H1-A和H1-G(5′-GGTATGCGACAGAGCTTG-3′)进行扩增来优化实验结果,使实验结果具有更高的分辨率 [ 36] 。但是,AFLP技术对DNA模板质量的要求较高,需要测定DNA的浓度和纯度,DNA量过多会导致酶切不完全,DNA量过少则会引起模板浓度不够。
Hallinger等 [ 37] 采用AFLP技术并结合序列分析研究12例患者胃窦、贲门、胃体分离得到的Hp,并检测出这些Hp的 arsS基因羧基末端胞嘧啶碱基长度存在差异和胸腺嘧啶碱基缺失的情况,而这两种情况都可以使 arsS开放阅读框(ORF)移位导致羧基末端氨基酸序列改变从而翻译出不同的异构酶。该研究发现了 arsS四种新的羧基末端变异,这些变异提高了Hp在胃部不同环境的适应性,促进Hp在胃部的定植。Owen等 [ 36] 从35例消化不良的患者中分离出89株Hp,其中16例患者取甲硝唑治疗前后配对的胃窦标本(32株),19例患者取克拉霉素和质子泵抑制剂治疗前后标本(57株),利用AFLP分析抗菌药物治疗对Hp菌株多型性的影响。结果发现,65%的患者为多克隆感染,并且抗菌药物治疗并没有明显改变菌株的多型性。此外Gibson等 [ 35] 利用AFLP技术研究Hp的耐药性。该研究对来自6例Hp感染者的24株Hp菌株进行分型,每例患者分别提供两个抗菌药物处理前和处理后的活检标本,结果发现有4例患者治疗前和治疗后的分离株显示相同的AFLP图谱,证明了抗菌药物治疗后相同菌株的持续感染。该研究还指出,限制性酶切反应的条件需要严格控制,因为这将是实验室之间结果比较的一个重要参数。与其他基于PCR的分型技术相比,AFLP并不是一种快速检测的方法,但是AFLP的指纹图谱能够产生足够多的条带,因此具有重复性好和分辨率高的优点 [ 35] 。
WGS法是对某一种生物基因组的全部基因进行序列测定,历经三代技术的发展。全基因组学的主要流程为测序所得序列经拼接与碱基修正后于美国国立生物技术信息中心网站( https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/)提供的Hp全基因组数据进行比对分析。WGS法不仅可以发现菌株之间的差异,还能发现Hp利用表面抗原变异和毒力基因调节来适应宿主环境的机制 [ 38] ,可以帮助我们深入了解Hp基因型和表型的关系。Tomb等 [ 39] 于1997年完成了第一株Hp 26695菌株的WGS工作。Hp 26695拥有1 667 867个碱基对和1590个预测编码序列,其中1590个预测基因的平均大小为945 bp。根据Hp 26695的核苷酸序列进行理化性质分析发现,超过70%的蛋白质的等电点大于7.0,主要由碱性氨基酸(精氨酸和赖氨酸)组成,是流感嗜血杆菌和大肠埃希菌的两倍,这可能提示了Hp适应胃酸的原因。Hp能够适应胃酸还取决于其在酸性条件下能够建立一个正性膜电位。这些基因组的信息不仅可以将Hp菌株之间的差异比较精确到单个碱基,还可以揭示菌株的遗传背景,了解菌株的毒力基因和耐药基因,为临床用药提供可靠的依据。
在近几年的研究中,Thorell等 [ 40] 利用WGS鉴定了来自尼加拉瓜的52株Hp,并进行系统发育树的构建和毒力因子分析,结果发现尼加拉瓜分离株具有与来自拉丁美洲的血型抗原结合性黏附素(BabA)序列高度相似的BabA变体,通过这个BabA变体影响发病机制。Iwamoto等 [ 41] 利用MiSeq平台对克拉霉素耐药Hp菌株进行WGS分析,清楚地识别了Hp基因组上23S rRNA基因的点突变,发现所有克拉霉素耐药菌株的测序结果都是在23s rRNA基因相同位置上存在G突变,在耐药菌株中还发现了外排泵基因的单核苷酸变体。
综上,WGS可以识别Hp整个基因组核苷酸序列的潜在突变,并在序列突变时识别变异,这是上述任何一种基因分型技术都无法比拟的。
上述五种基因分型技术是目前细菌性传染病暴发调查和分子流行病学研究的常规技术。Burucoa等 [ 28] 应用meta分析计算不同分型技术的区分率值,结果发现PFGE和RAPD的区分率分别为24%~88%和99%~100%,因此认为Hp分型不推荐使用PFGE。但有研究显示,如选择合适的操作方法和内切酶,采用PFGE技术对Hp分型的分型率可达97% [ 18] 。MLST技术操作简单、快速 [ 17] ,尤其是近年来在Hp的溯源分析方面的作用可圈可点,但是MLST技术受选择位点的限制 [ 42] ,一般仅获得管家基因的ST序列,所以在研究中可以考虑结合其他基因分型技术来进行判断 [ 43] 。RAPD技术所需的DNA样本量少,易于比较菌株之间的差异,可用于寻找细菌的遗传关系和多样性,但是该方法无法提供关于菌株致病因子的相关信息 [ 28] 。AFLP结合了RAPD技术的优点,分辨率高、重复性好,比较容易构建指纹图谱,但是不如其他分型方法快速。相对于其他四种分型方法来说,WGS能够了解微生物的全部基因组序列,理论上可以对任何微生物进行分型,分辨率达到单个碱基,是其他四种分型方法无法比拟的。但是就目前情况来看, WGS实施成本相对较高,实验周期长,在临床实验室和基层公共卫生实验室难以广泛应用。
目前,关于Hp的很多问题还有待深入研究。例如,Hp感染所致不同疾病与菌株分型是否相关?Hp单克隆和多克隆感染是由什么决定的?Hp基因分型在上述问题的研究中非常重要,但目前尚没有一种分型方法能够满足所有的研究需求,具体选用哪种分型方法在很大程度上取决于研究目的。随着生物信息技术的发展,WGS技术实施的成本和周期不断下降,相信在不久的将来,这项新的技术将给Hp研究带来新的突破。
Funding Statement
浙江省自然科学基金(LZ14H20001)
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