Table 1.

Description of the positive effects of exercise on gut microbiota and brain functions.

Gut Microbiota Changes	Brain Changes
- Increases Firmicutes and Actinobacteria	- Decreases anxiety and depression
- Increases butyrate-producing bacteria, such as Roseburia hominis, Faecalibacterium pausnitzii, and Ruminococcaceae	- Improves mood
- Increases butyrate concentration	- Improves motor control
- Reduces transient stool time in the gastrointestinal tract	- Decreases inflammation through t-cell activation
- Increases key antioxidant enzymes (catalase and glutathione peroxidase), anti-inflammatory cytokines (including IL-10), and antiapoptotic proteins (including Bcl-2) in intestinal lymphocytes	- Improves memory, long-term potentiation and cognitive flexibility
- Decreases proinflammatory cytokines (TNF-α and IL-17) and proapoptotic proteins (caspase 3 and 7), leading to an overall reduction in gut inflammation	- Improves sleep
- Increases SCFAs, followed by a decrease in Bacterioides and an increase in Faecalibacterium and Lachnospira	- Improves neurogenesis and brain plasticity
- Modulates gastrointestinal motility	- Improves brain metabolism through mitochondria