Table 3.

Effects of plasmalogen administration on age-associated diseases, including cognitive impairments, in clinical studies.

Resource and Dose	Subject	Effects	Refs.
Scallop Plasmalogen composition: unclear 1.0 mg/day for 24 weeks	Mild AD and MCI Placebo: n = 140, age 76.5, MMSE 24.2 1.0 mg: n = 145, age 76.4, MMSE 24.0	Not affected in whole In mild AD (MMSE 20–23) Female: WMS-R improvement compared with the placebo Younger than 78: WMS-R improvement compared with the placebo	[11]
Scallop Plasmalogen composition: unclear 1.0 mg/day for 24 weeks	MCI Placebo: n = 88, age 75.9, MMSE 25.6 1.0 mg: n = 90, age 75.8, MMSE 25.6	Improvement in total MMSE compared with before the intake Improvement in domain “orientation to place” compared with the placebo and before the intake Maintenance of domain “orientation to time” compared with before the intake	[143]
Scallop Plasmalogen composition: unclear 0.5 or 1.0 mg/day for 12 weeks	Moderate-to-severe AD 0.5 mg: n = 68, age 78.5, MMSE 13.0 1.0 mg: n = 74, age 76.6, MMSE 13.4	Improvement in total MMSE compared with before the intake Increase in plasma and RBC levels of PlsEtn compared with before the intake Increase in plasma PlsEtn levels in the 0.5 mg group compared with the 1.0 mg group Correlation between changes in MMSE and RBC PlsEtn	[144]
Scallop Ether lipid composition: 52% PlsEtn, 2% PlsCho, 4% PakEtn, 42% PakCho 1.0 mg/day for 24 weeks	PD PD: n = 10, age 67.8, MMSE 28.6	Improvement in total PDQ-39 compared with immediately before trial Deterioration of total PDQ-39 at 4 weeks later of the final administration Increase in plasma and RBC levels of PlsEtn compared with levels immediately before trial Decrease in RBC PlsEtn levels after 4 weeks without administration	[142]
Ascidian Plasmalogen composition: unclear 1.0 mg/day for 12 weeks	Healthy subjects with mild forgetfulness Placebo: n = 24, age 46.4, MMSE 29.0 1.0 mg: n = 25, age 45.6, MMSE 28.5	Improvement in Cognitrax domain “composite memory” at 8 and 12 weeks compared with the placebo	[145]
Ascidian Plasmalogen composition: 100% PlsEtn, trace PlsCho 0.5 or 1.0 mg/day for 12 weeks	MCI Placebo: n = 44, age 51.4, MMSE 25.3 0.5 mg: n = 45, age 51.5, MMSE 25.4 1.0 mg: n = 49, age 52.7, MMSE 25.7	Improvement in CogEvo domain “working memory performance” in the 1.0 mg group compared with the placebo In subjects older than 49 Improvement in total MMSE and “working memory performance” in the 1.0 mg group compared with the placebo	[12]
Chicken breast Plasmalogen composition: unclear 1.0, 10, or 100 mg/day for 12 weeks	Healthy subjects with mild forgetfulness Placebo: n = 17, age 58.7 1.0 mg: n = 15, age 57.2 10 mg: n = 16, age 59.9 100 mg: n = 15, age 59.0	Improvement in total RBANS in the 1.0 and 100 mg groups compared with before the intake Improvement in RBANS domain “attention” in all the groups, including the placebo, compared with before the intake Improvement in some Cognitrax domains in the plasmalogen groups compared with before the intake	[146]
Chicken breast Plasmalogen composition: unclear 0.5 or 1.0 mg/day for 12 weeks	Healthy subjects with mild forgetfulness age 50 to 79, MSSE > 26 Placebo: n = 24 0.5 mg: n = 25 1.0 mg: n = 25	Improvement in some CogEvo domains in all the groups, including the placebo, compared with before the intake In subjects older than 59 Improvement in some CogEvo domains in the 1.0 mg group compared with before the intake Improvement in CogEvo domain “verbal memory” in the 1.0 mg group compared with the placebo Improvement in CogEvo domain “psychomotor speed” in the 0.5 mg group compared with the placebo	[147]

AD, Alzheimer’s disease; MCI, mild cognitive impairment; MMSE, mini mental state examination; PakCho, 1-O-alkyl-2-acyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine; PakEtn, 1-O-alkyl-2-acyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine; PD, Parkinson’s disease; PDQ-39, Parkinson’s disease questionnaire-39; PlsCho, choline plasmalogen; PlsEtn, ethanolamine plasmalogen; RBANS, repeatable battery for the assessment of neuropsychological status; RBC, red blood cell; WMS-R, Wechsler memory scale—revised.