Table 2.

Strategies to combat AMR in ICUs.

Strategies	Interventions	Relevant global guides and tools/Evidence based study/References
Nonpharmacological/Infection, Prevention and control	1.Hand hygiene and good sanitation practices that limit transmission of infectious MDR bacteria	[137], [138], [139]
	2.Proper disinfection, decontamination and waste management disposal within and around ICUs	[140,141] https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/312226. License: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO;
	3.Routine epidemiological surveillance of hospital environments for emerging and circulating microbes	[142]
	4.Isolation or patient cohorting systems	WHO Global strategy for containment of AMR, 2001; https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/66860
	5.Development and strengthening of national reference microbiological laboratories	[143,144]
	6.Building human capacity in microbial diagnostics, testing and treatment	[143,145]
Antibiotic management	7.Establishing effective antimicrobial stewardship programs in hospitals, especially in ICUs	[144] WHO Global strategy for containment of AMR, 2001; https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/66860https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/329404/9789241515481-eng.pdf
	8.Appropriate diagnostic tests and microbial identification, antimicrobial susceptibility tests coupled with treatment of implicated microorganism	[145] https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/205912/B4691.pdf
	9.Development of guidelines for antimicrobial treatment	[[146], [147], [148], [149]] https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/205912/B4691.pdf
	10.Shorter course administration of antibiotics; effective application of pharmacodynamics and kinetics dose optimization	[150,151] https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/205912/B4691.pdf