Table 4.

Characteristics and health associations of 12 PVOCs commonly detected in human urine. RCC: renal cell carcinoma; iMR: idiopathic membranous nephropathy; ADHD: attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.

Compound	Associations with health outcomes	Source
Isovaleraldehyde (3-Methylbutanal)	Increased in urinary incontinence	[49]
2-Pentanone	Showed differences in RCC compared to controls; increased in overweight/obese children; increased in iMR; present in most urine samples from healthy individuals; lung cancer	[40, 50–53]
4-Methyl-2-pentanone	Present in most urine samples from healthy individuals; solvent exposure from paint, varnish, rubber cements, and adhesives	[40, 54]
2-Butanone	Present in most urine samples from healthy individuals; lung cancer	[40, 53]
Pyrrole	Decreased in patients with mesangial proliferative glomerulonephritis; increased in patients with psychiatric disorders	[42, 44]
4-Heptanone	Decreased in RCC; increased in iMR; present in most urine samples from healthy individuals; increased in diabetic patients	[40, 42, 45, 52]
Dimethyl disulfide	Generated by E. coli-increased in urinary tract infection; decreased in cancer patients	[23, 55]
Carvone	Derived from caraway seeds, considered beneficial for health; tumor inhibitor	[56]
1-Pentanol	Most likely from solvent exposure; known neurotoxicant in humans	[57]
Pentanal	Increased in patients with prostate cancer	[58]
Allyl isothiocyanate	Ingested in cruciferous vegetables and has anti-cancer properties: inhibits bladder cancer	[47, 48]
2-Methyl-1-propanol (Isobutanol)	Elevated in diabetes mellitus	[46, 59]