Extended Data Table 1.

Main experimental performance of ACCEL compared with state-of-the-art electronic and photonic devices

We use the energy efficiency, computing speed, and processing latency at the system level here for comparisons^49,50. DMD, digital micro-mirror device; SLM, spatial light modulator; sCMOS, scientific complementary metal oxide semiconductor; MZM, Mach-Zehnder modulator; SMF, single-mode fibre; PD, photodetector; PCM, phase-change materials; PIN, P-doped-intrinsic-N-doped; CMOS, complementary metal oxide semiconductor. For the performance of GPU, we listed both the claimed computing speed and efficiency from the official website (parallel stream for processing multiple input images simultaneously) and our experimentally measured results on the same task as ACCEL (single stream for single input image in real-time processing) for fair comparisons.