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. 2023 Aug 30;9(6):2711–2718. doi: 10.1002/vms3.1247

Antiviral potentials of garlic (Allium sativum) in poultry production: A mini review

Benjamin Adjei‐Mensah 1,2,✉, Bernard Quaye 2, Obed Opoku 2, Comfort Charity Atuahene 2
PMCID: PMC10650359  PMID: 37647249

Abstract

Poultry enterprise is challenged with high economic losses due to viral infections. The outbreak of such infections, including Newcastle disease, avian influenza, infectious bronchitis and infectious bursal disease, could undermine poultry performance leading to decreased meat and egg production. The potency of vaccines in recent times has dropped with the rise in the virulence of antigens, which can interrupt vaccination defence. Natural herbs and phytochemicals have been extensively recommended because of their vast advantageous effects. Garlic and its bioactive organo‐sulphur compounds have been proven to have antiviral, immunomodulatory and other pharmaceutical properties. Remarkable effects in poultry include a decrease in viral loads, an increase in antibody titres, lessening inflammatory cytokines and augmenting antiviral gene expression; however, methods of preparation, the dose of bioactive compounds and proportions administered may cause disparities in different reports. Therefore, this review highlights the potential of garlic against viral diseases, immunomodulatory, toxicity and pathological status in embryonated chicken eggs and poultry.

Keywords: antiviral, garlic, phytochemicals, poultry, vaccines, viral infections

Due to increasing antigen virulence, vaccination efficacy has been reduced, necessitating the usage of natural herbs and phytochemicals. Garlic supplementation can reduce viral loads and inhibit the expression of a specific gene but higher dosages can lead to toxicity.

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1. INTRODUCTION

Viral infections ensue as soon as harmful pathogens infiltrate an animal's body and virions (infectious virus particles) bind and invade vulnerable cells (Taylor et al., 2012). Viral diseases are of immoderate economic importance in the poultry enterprise as they may pose a pandemic threat as well as the zoonotic prospects of some. The known devastating poultry viral diseases comprise Newcastle disease (ND), infectious bronchitis (IB), avian influenza (AI), infectious bursal disease (IBD), fowl pox and egg down syndrome. The continuous emergence of pathogenic viruses is possible through numerous genetic modifications, including mutation, recombination and co‐evolution with vaccines used (Bagust, 2008). In order to mitigate the menace associated with such infections globally, vaccination programmes have been rolled out (Marangon & Busani, 2006). However, there is still a deficit arising from common scavenging birds’ infections, which are not usually vaccinated, resulting in the outspread of the virus that in due course catalyses outbreaks (Bagust, 2008).

Several variables have been outlined as the reasons for vaccine shortfalls. Among these factors, to mention a few, are the poor application of vaccines (Suarez & Schultz‐Cherry, 2000), neutralisation of vaccine activity due to maternal‐based antibodies interference especially during the first 7 days of age (De Vriese et al., 2010; Kim et al., 2010), influence on the bird's responsiveness to vaccination due to immune‐repressive infections (El‐Saadony et al., 2021; Hao et al., 2008; Hegazy et al., 2011; Sun et al., 2009), increased mutability frequency of the virus instigated by vaccine pressure (Boni, 2008; Cattoli et al., 2011; Escorcia et al., 2008; Lee et al., 2004) and reduction in vaccine effectiveness because of break‐in protocols of cold chain guidelines (Abdelwhab & Hafez, 2012).

Medicinal plants have immunostimulatory effects to combat viral diseases. Garlic (Allium sativum L.) in many centuries has been used as a spice, a functional food, a seasoning agent and a vital home medicine for treating different diseases together with viral infections (Ayaz & Alpsoy, 2007; del Rayo Camacho‐Corona et al., 2022; Rehman et al., 2019). The main bioactive compounds (organic molecules) in garlic responsible for its odour smell are the organo‐sulphur compounds (OSCs) (Omar & Al‐Wabel, 2010). Lawson (1998) showed that among these OSCs, S‐allyl‐l‐cysteine sulphoxide (alliin) is the most abundant sulphur compound found in fresh and dry garlic (10–30 mg/g). The preparation of garlic through crushing, chopping or mincing can swiftly alter alliin into diallyl thiosulfinate (allicin) by the enzymatic activity of alliinase (Borlinghaus et al., 2014; Rouf et al., 2020). The effectiveness of allicin is realised when it reacts with cellular thiol groups including l‐cysteine and glutathione to form S‐allyl‐mercapto‐cysteine and S‐allyl‐mercapto‐glutathione, respectively, which might be the cause of destructive structural alterations of proteins of pathogens (Borlinghaus et al., 2014; El‐Saber et al., 2020; Trio et al., 2014). However, Amagase (2006) and Harris et al. (2001) admitted that allicin is highly volatile and labile to heat and may be decomposed into other OSCs such as diallyl sulphide, diallyl disulphide, diallyl trisulphide, ajoene and vinyldithiins, and thus, the technique of preparation may yield varying OSCs as major constituents. Other non‐sulphur components of garlic which can serve as additives of synbiotic effects with OSCs are lectins, polysaccharides, flavonoids, steroids, saponins, vitamins, allicin, fatty acids, minerals and amino acids (Amagase, 2006; Josling, 2005; Keyaerts et al., 2007; Li et al., 2017; Sharma, 2019). Allicin and allicin‐based OSCs have been reported to possess antiviral, immunostimulatory, anti‐inflammatory, antioxidant traits and other pharmacological qualities (Alagawany et al., 2021; Arreola et al., 2015; El‐Tarabily et al., 2021; Melguizo‐Rodríguez et al., 2022; Metwally et al., 2018; Wang et al., 2020). Thus, this review seeks to evaluate the antiviral potentials of garlic in poultry production.

2. METHODOLOGY

Search results of articles published between 2001 and 2022 using the terms ‘viral diseases’ or ‘garlic as antiviral’ in conjunction with ‘broiler or layer’, as well as ‘vaccination’, ‘clinical signs’, ‘ND virus’, ‘AI virus’, ‘IB’, ‘IBD’, ‘embryonated chicken eggs (ECEs)’ and ‘immunomodulatory activity’, were conducted using Google Scholar (https://scholar.google.com) search engine and PubMed (https://pubmed) database. Articles that did not include garlic but described the antiviral potential of other herbal extracts were not included in this review.

Data were collected from each article and sorted into different categories, including in ovo ECE, immunomodulatory activities in broilers and laying hens, embryonic lethality level and pathological signs. Additionally, findings on the combined effect of garlic and other herbs were included in this review. Information on the in ovo, in vivo and combinatory potential of garlic in broiler and layer chickens, including the type of broiler strain, garlic type, dosages given, lethal dosage, type of virus‐infected, time of inoculation, viral loads and antibody titre, were compiled.

3. IMPACT OF GARLIC ON IN OVO EMBRYONATED CHICKEN EGGS (ECEs)

An ECE is a convoluted structure made up of an embryo and the membranes (chorioallantoic, amniotic and yolk) that support it. The forming embryo and its membranes provide a diverse range of cell types that allow a wide range of viruses to propagate effectively. This mechanism has been employed to test the antiviral potency of garlic in birds in ovo. Hizam et al. (2019) investigated the antiviral potential of garlic oil (50 μg/mL) against the ND virus by incubating it with the LaSota strain virus for a period of 1 and 24 h. Haemagglutination (detection of viral surface proteins) and reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT‐PCR) (viral genome detection) tests were carried out. The authors revealed that garlic oil incubation lowered the potency of the virus by damaging viral surface receptors and also reduced gene augmentation when compared to the control, which had the virus treated with phosphate buffer saline (PBS). Harazem et al. (2019) investigated the antiviral activity of garlic against suspected ND virus samples isolated from 10 days old ECEs through the allantoic cavity using haemagglutination and RT‐PCR tests. It was reported that garlic bulb extract importantly reduced the virus in haemagglutination, and clear bands were expressed against the F‐gene of ND virus using primers. Arify et al. (2018) estimated the antiviral potential of garlic by virus neutralisation test using 9 days old ECEs inoculated with velogenic strain ND virus isolates (VNDV). The test groups were negative control (injected with 0.2 mL PBS), positive control (injected with 0.2 mL VNDV, 100 EID50/0.2 mL) and a mixture of VNDV (100 EID50/0.1 mL) and two varying doses of aqueous garlic extract (10 mg/mL and 100 mg/mL). It was indicated that aqueous garlic extract at 100 mg/mL had better antiviral potency against the velogenic strain of ND. In a similar study, Doostmohammadian et al. (2020) examined the antiviral influence of aqueous garlic extract (0.5, 1, 2 and 4 mg/mL doses) against VNDV field isolate inoculated in 9–10 days old ECEs through allantoic pathway at 0.1 mL of 2.5 × 10−10 dilution of the virus. The negative control group was injected with 0.1 mL of PBS (antibiotic‐based), and the positive control group was only infected with the virus. The authors showed that the levels of antibody titres against the velogenic strain of ND were significantly higher in the aqueous garlic‐treated groups. More so, in vitro incubation of ND virus revealed that aqueous garlic extract did not exhibit haemagglutination‐blocking activity. It was thus concluded by the authors that aqueous garlic extract can exhibit an antiviral impact against VNDV in ovo and also lower antibody titre and viral infectivity.

Ming et al. (2021) investigated the efficacy of diallyl trisulphide (>97% pure) to protect birds against influenza virus (A subtype H9N2) infection. The virus was inoculated in 10 days old ECEs at 37°C for 3 days. In the study, haemagglutination and quantitative real‐time RT‐PCR were used in detecting antiviral immune response and AI virus M gene expression levels in vitro, respectively. The authors revealed that A549 cells treated before or after H9N2 virus inoculation lowered viral loads, augmented the expression of antiviral genes (RIG‐1, IRF‐3 and interferon‐β) and lessened inflammatory cytokines expression (TNF‐α and IL‐6). It was concluded that diallyl trisulphide could be a natural medicine against AI infections. Rasool et al. (2017) evaluated the antiviral effect of garlic extract (at 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25% each) using 9 days old ECEs, which were inoculated with 0.1 mL mixture of the extract and AI virus (H9N2) strain at varying doses through the allantoic pathway. It was reported that the antiviral effects of garlic showed positive from a 15% dose against the AI virus (H9N2) strain.

It can be inferred from the in ovo studies that garlic can reduce the viral loads of ND virus and AI H9N2 virus and inhibit the expression of some specific selected viral genes depending on the proportion of garlic used irrespective of the age of the chicken embryo. However, further studies that focus on establishing the method of garlic extract preparation and the optimum doses of garlic extract for the inhibition of specific selected viral genes are key to affirming the findings in these reports.

4. IMMUNOMODULATORY ACTIVITIES OF GARLIC IN BROILER CHICKENS

Several scientific studies have demonstrated the immunostimulatory traits of garlic in varying strains of broiler chickens. Jafari et al. (2008) determined the efficacy of garlic powder to heighten the immune response of the AI vaccine using Ross 308 broiler chicks. The test groups consisted of two control groups and two experimental groups, which received 1% and 3% garlic powder in their diet. The chicks in the experimental groups after the first phase of feeding were further divided into two groups, and the latter groups were redrawn from receiving garlic supplementation in the diet. The chicks in all the test groups apart from the first control group were immunised subcutaneously against the AI virus (0.25 mL) using inactivated vaccine (subtype H9N2). The authors reported that both haemagglutination inhibition (HI) and ELISA tests revealed antibody titres that were markedly higher in the vaccinated chicks when compared with the control (non‐vaccinated group). It was thus suggested that garlic incorporation in the diet did not stimulate the humoral response of chickens against the AI virus vaccine. Hassan et al. (2013) evaluated the potency of two essential oils (garlic extract and probiotics) on the immune response of Cobb broiler chicks to live ND vaccine. The treatments included a negative control, a positive control, a garlic extract‐supplemented group and probiotics supplemented group. All groups were vaccinated with the ND Hitchner B1 vaccine through the ocular instillation route and a booster live ND vaccine (LaSota) administered in drinking water except for the negative control group. The authors indicated that the addition of the essential oils did not stimulate a humoral response in the chickens vaccinated with ND live vaccines as their antibody titres were greater compared to the non‐vaccinated group. Similarly, Gautam et al. (2017) reported higher antibody titre against ND at 0.4% and 0.6% supplementation when freshly prepared garlic paste at 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6% and 0.8% (w/v) was administered in the drinking water of Cobb 500 broiler chickens vaccinated against ND (F strain) during 1 week (intraocular) and 4 weeks (oral). Safdar et al. (2016) explored the impact of various aqueous herbal extracts (aloe vera, ginger, safi, garlic, probiotics and turmeric) at 0.2% each on the anti‐ND virus HI antibody titre of vaccinated Hubbard broiler chickens. It was reported that the level of anti‐ND virus‐HI antibody was comparable across all the plant extract groups and the control group. In a study, the humoral immune response of Arbor acre broiler chicks supplemented with garlic meal at 0.125% in the diet was evaluated by vaccinating the birds and infecting them with 1LD50 IBD virus (10−3.4 in 0.08 mL PBS) isolates through conjunctival instillation at 28 days of age (Oladele, Esan, Adetiba, et al., 2018). The authors demonstrated that at 42 days of age, the antibody titre of the vaccinated group that received garlic meal was statistically superior to the control group that was not infected. It was thus suggested that the birds that were not infected had improved humoral response to vaccination. Al‐Shwilly (2017) examined the impact of garlic juice addition (0.5, 1.0 and 1.50 mL/L) in the drinking water of Ross broiler chicks vaccinated against ND and IBD on their humoral response using the ELISA test. It was shown that beyond the 0.5 mL/L of garlic juice addition, the experimental groups significantly increased antibody titre levels against ND and IBD after vaccination. Comparably, Hanieh et al. (2010) investigated the immunomodulatory activity of garlic and onion at 10 and 30 g/kg diet of White Leghorn broiler chicks vaccinated against ND and reported that the antibody titre levels produced against ND at 10 g/kg were significantly higher relative to the control. Thus, the authors suggested that alliums’ supplementation at 10 g/kg could not improve immunostimulatory activity in birds. Consistently, the evaluation of the immunostimulatory activity of garlic powder (at 100, 150 and 200 g/t) against ND and AI‐vaccinated Hubbard broiler chicks revealed that the garlic powder supplemented groups had higher levels of antibody titre against both viruses (Eid & Iraq, 2014). In another study, the antibody titre against ND and IBD of the garlic powder‐supplemented group at the rate of 20 g/kg significantly increased (Ahsan et al., 1999). In line with this, Pourali et al. (2010) reported significantly higher antibody titre levels against ND at 2 weeks when Ross 308 broiler chicks’ diet was supplemented with garlic powder at the rate of 0.2%–1.0%. In another study by Jafari et al. (2008), the efficacy of garlic powder at 1% and 3% was tested on the immune response of Ross x Ross broiler chicks against ND vaccine (B1 strain via ocular) at days 9 and 18 of age. It was shown that the antibody level of the vaccinated birds was superior relative to the non‐vaccinated ones. Likewise, Rahimi et al. (2011) reported no influence of 0.1% garlic addition on the antibody titre against ND (LaSota) when varying herbs were incorporated in the diets of Ross 308 broiler chicks. More so, Toghyani et al. (2011) found that the incorporation of garlic powder at 2 and 4 g/kg in the diet of broiler chickens did not affect the humoral response against the ND and AI. Amera et al. (2013) also reported no weighty influence on humoral antibody levels against ND and IBD when Ross 208 broiler chicks’ diet was supplemented with garlic oil at the rate of 100 and 200 mg/kg. Interestingly, Khan et al. (2012) showed that 3 g/kg garlic powder added to the diet of Cobb 500 broiler chicks resulted in an enhanced humoral response against ND and IBD.

Up till now, studies have shown that the supplementation of garlic at various inclusion levels in the diet or drinking water of broilers has no positive impact on the humoral response against ND, AI and IBD. The opposing result could be attributable to the technique of processing and preparation along with the proportion used and the dose of the bioactive compound, allicin in the garlic product. Thus, the immunostimulatory activity of garlic against viral diseases in broilers needs to be explored again by establishing the rate of inclusion and the conditions that will harness its effectiveness.

5. IMMUNOMODULATORY ACTIVITIES OF GARLIC IN LAYING HENS

Little has been done on the effect of garlic against viral diseases in layer production. Bo et al. (2021) evaluated the potential of selenised garlic polysaccharides (sGPS) on the immune response of green‐shell laying hens using a serum HI antibody titre test against the ND virus. At weeks 2 and 4, the birds were vaccinated with the ND vaccine, and concurrently, the birds in the polysaccharide groups were administered 0.5 mL sGPS at 4, 8 and 16 mg/kg BW and GPS (16 mg/kg BW) intragastric aside the control groups. The authors reported that GPS statistically enhanced serum HI antibody titres against the ND virus over the periods tested when it was modified through selenisation. Oladele, Esan, Adetiba et al. (2018) explored the effect of garlic meal at 0%, 0.125%, 0.25% and 0.50% on the immunity response of Isa Brown layer chicks using ELISA and HI tests. The birds were immunised against ND using LaSota strain (at 14 days), Komarov (at 56 days) and Komarov oil emulsion (at 105 and 280 days), whereas IBD vaccines were immunised at 2 and 4 weeks of age. The authors reported that at 6 weeks of age, the antibody titres of ND and IBD were significantly higher in the garlic meal‐supplemented groups when compared with the control group.

At present, no study has been carried out on other poultry breeds such as turkey, ducks, quails and guinea fowl to test the efficacy of garlic against antiviral diseases. Thus, there is a need for researchers to also focus on investigating the immunostimulatory effect of garlic against viral infections such as egg drop syndrome virus in laying hens.

6. EMBRYONIC LETHALITY LEVEL AND PATHOLOGICAL SIGNS

The embryonic lethality test is used to distinguish between virulent and avirulent assays. Several factors may affect the success of such a study, including the route of inoculation, the age of embryos at propagation, the dose of inoculants and the quality of the embryo (Wooley et al., 2000; Nix et al., 2006; Seo et al., 2013). The degree to which the supplementation of garlic can cause harm or death of chicken embryos in an attempt to fight viruses has also been established. A study was conducted by Hizam et al. (2019) to determine the toxicity of garlic oil on a chicken embryo with or without the virus, LaSota strain. Fertilised eggs which have been incubated for 9 days at 37.5°C were inoculated with 50 μg/mL garlic oil, which inhibited virus infectivity preceding the egg inoculation. The virus inoculum volume was 100 μg/mL obtained from a stock virus (1:1000 PBS) containing 1% antibiotics. The authors indicated that no antiviral toxicity was observed on both the oil and the oil with virus‐inoculated embryos; however, clear pathological signs showed on the embryos injected with the virus only. In another study, the safety concentration and embryo index (reduction of gross lesions) of garlic extract using four varying dosages (25, 50, 100 and 200 mg/mL) in inoculated ECEs were evaluated (Harazem et al., 2019). The authors revealed that dosages of garlic extract beyond 50 mg/mL rendered toxic effects on the ECEs in a dose‐dependent manner. Similarly, Arify et al. (2018) reported that lethal effects on embryonated eggs exuded beyond the dose of 50 mg/mL when the toxicity levels of garlic and nilavembu (Andrographis paniculata) in ECEs were investigated. Oladele, Esan, Akpan, et al. (2018) determined the efficacy of garlic meal at 0.125% in the diet of broilers infected with 1LD50 IBD virus (10−3.4 in 0.08 mL PBS) isolates on their toxicity effect and pathological signs through conjunctival instillation at 28 days of age. The authors observed that the infected garlic meal‐supplemented groups (both vaccinated and non‐vaccinated) showed less lesion scores but had higher toxicity effects relative to the control groups. A study to test the toxicity levels of aqueous garlic and ginger extract at varying concentrations of 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25% in ECEs inoculated with AI virus (H9N2) strain revealed that garlic extract had higher cytotoxicity compared to that of ginger extract and the histopathological score of chorioallantoic membranes increased as the extract doses increased (Rasool et al., 2017). Rajabi et al. (2021) observed a reduced severity of histopathological signs in the duodenum when Ross 308 broiler chicks challenged with the H9N2 virus at 28 days were fed with garlic.

It can be inferred that chicken embryos are challenged with various degrees of histopathological signs when inoculated with garlic extract and beyond 50 mg/mL in the chicken embryos can cause total death of the embryos. However, there is a need to establish the clinical effects of garlic on birds challenged with viral loads. Additionally, there are also toxicities associated with the supplementation of garlic in the diets of birds (Adjei‐Mensah et al., 2022); thus, it is important to determine the concentration of the bioactive compounds in the garlic product to inform the proportion that is safe for the health of the birds.

7. COMBINATORY EFFECT OF GARLIC AND OTHER HERBS AGAINST VIRAL DISEASES

Garlic and other plant extracts have shown promising immunostimulatory potentials against viral diseases. Priya et al. (2022) conducted a study to evaluate the antiviral efficacy of five herbal mixtures (turmeric, coriander, garlic, creat and fenugreek) in an in ovo assay using ND virus (Genotype XIII) isolated from infected birds. A mixture of the identical volume of the ND virus and the ethanolic extract at the dosages of 50, 250 and 500 μg/mL was prepared. The extract was prepared by dissolving 0.5 g crude ethanolic extracts in 5 mL of dimethyl sulphoxide. The authors revealed that there was no measurable level of the virus observed because the ethanolic extracts pointedly lowered the virus titres. The presences of alkaloids, flavonoids, saponins, tannins, terpenoids, hydrolysable tannins and glycosides which are noted for their antiviral activities were found in the herbs. Raziq et al. (2012) studied the influence of liquid‐based infusion of five herbal mixtures (aloe vera, anise, berberry, fenugreek and garlic) in the ratio of 1:3:1:2:1 on the antibody titre against ND and IBD. The proportions administered in drinking water were 5, 10 and 20 mL/L and a control (non‐vaccinated). The authors showed that aside from the control group, all the vaccinated groups had greater antibody titres against ND and IBD. Nidaullah et al. (2010) indicated an improved immune response against ND and IBD when different proportions of the aqueous blend of garlic (4%), ginger (6%), neem (3%) and berberry (10%) were added to the drinking water of broiler chicks. Mohebbifar and Torki (2011) demonstrated that a 2 g/kg mixture of garlic and thyme powder noticeably impacted the antibody titre level against ND virus in Ross chicks. Mohanad et al. (2019) supplemented garlic (0.3 g/kg) and apple vinegar (1 mL/L) and also a blend of the former and black bean (4 g/kg) in the diet of Ross 308 broiler chicks and showed higher immunity response against ND and IBD compared to the individual plants. Additionally, Elbaz et al. (2021) reported a significantly increased serum antibody titre against ND virus when compared to the control and garlic powder groups, both multi‐strain probiotic and garlic powder (0.50 g/kg) were added to the diet of Ross 308 male broiler chicks for 35 days. Interestingly, no significant impact was observed on the antibody titre against ND virus (LaSota) when the blend of garlic, thyme and coneflower and the individual herbs at the rate of 0.1% each was supplemented in the diet of Ross 308 broiler chickens (Rahimi et al., 2011). This opposing result observed could be likened to the method of preparation and the proportion of the garlic product used. As a result, determining the phytochemical analysis and bioactive components of each plant is essential to determining the proportion that will significantly enhance the health of the birds (Adjei‐Mensah & Atuahene, 2022).

8. CONCLUSION

The present literature reveals that garlic supplementation in ECEs in ovo can reduce viral loads and inhibit the expression of some specific genes of ND virus and AI virus; however, inoculating garlic extract beyond 50 mg/mL causes toxicity and death of embryos. Garlic and its bioactive compounds elevate the antibody titre of ND and IBD in broilers and laying hens. Additionally, the optimum supplementation level of garlic can reduce intestinal pathological signs in chickens post‐infection. Future studies should focus on modulating specific viral gene isolates using garlic extract as well as the optimum dosage required and an appropriate period of inoculation both in chickens and other breeds of poultry.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

Visualization; writing—original draft; writing—review and editing: Benjamin Adjei‐Mensah. Methodology; writing—original draft; writing—review and editing: Bernard Quaye. Methodology; writing—original draft; writing—review and editing: Obed Opoku. Supervision; writing—review and editing: Comfort Charity Atuahene.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST STATEMENT

The authors report there is no conflicts of interest to declare.

ETHICS STATEMENT

The authors confirm that the ethical policies of the journal, as noted on the journal's author guidelines page, have been adhered to. No ethical approval was required as this is a review article with no original research data.

PEER REVIEW

The peer review history for this article is available at https://publons.com/publon/10.1002/vms3.1247.

Adjei‐Mensah, B. , Quaye, B. , Opoku, O. , & Atuahene, C. C. (2023). Antiviral potentials of garlic (Allium sativum) in poultry production: A mini review. Veterinary Medicine and Science, 9, 2711–2718. 10.1002/vms3.1247

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT

All data used is available and can be provided upon reasonable request.

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