Abstract
School-age children (SAC) are at a higher risk of geohelminth or soil-transmitted helminth (STH) infections due to their practice of walking and playing barefoot, lack of adequate sanitary facilities, and poor personal hygiene. In Ethiopia, periodic deworming has been implemented since 2013 with the aim of interrupting the transmission of STH in children by 2025. To evaluate the likely success of such a control program, it is crucial to monitor the transmission of STH, especially in peri-urban settings where environmental sanitation is modest. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence and determinants of STH infections among SAC in peri-urban areas of Jimma City, Southwestern Ethiopia. A community-based cross-sectional study was conducted in five peri-urban Kebeles of Jimma City from July to September, 2021. Systematic random sampling was used to select 522 households with at least one child, and 478 children (5–15 years old) were recruited randomly from the households. Data on sociodemographic and potential risk factors were collected using a structured questionnaire. Stool samples from each study participant were collected and examined microscopically using the Kato–Katz technique. Multivariate logistic regression model was used to identify risk factors associated with STH infections. The prevalence of any STH among SAC was 23.4%, with Ascaris lumbricoides being the predominant STH species (15.7%), followed by Trichuris trichiura (9%) and hookworm (2.1%). Most (86.6%) of the STH-positive SAC had a single infection and a light infection intensity (88.2%), with a mean intensity of 367.4 eggs per gram. Location of Kebele (AOR = 2.73; 95% CI: 1.21–6.16, p=0.016), lack of hand washing after defecation (AOR = 6.39; 95% CI: 3.16–12.95, p < 0.001), untrimmed fingernails (AOR = 2.65; 95% CI: 1.56–4.51, p < 0.001), and lack of previous deworming (AOR = 2.90; 95% CI: 1.47–5.74, p=0.002) were significant predictors for STH infections among SAC. In conclusion, the study revealed that STH infections are significant health problem in the peri-urban areas of Jimma City. Strengthening periodic deworming and improving children's hygiene through health education are required to reduce the transmission.
1. Background
Soil-transmitted helminths (STHs) or geohelminths are the most widespread human parasitic infections in tropical and subtropical regions of the world where hygienic practices are poor and sanitary facilities are scarce [1–3]. Globally, more than 4.5 billion people are at risk of STH infection, with about 25% of the world population estimated to have been infected with at least one STH species leading to over 1.94 million disability-adjusted life years lost due to STH-related morbidity every year [4, 5]. Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), Latin America, India, China, and East Asia are the most affected regions, sharing the highest burden of STH infections [6]. Ascaris lumbricoides, Trichuris trichiura, and hookworms (Necator americanus and Ancylostoma duodenale) are the main parasitic species causing geohelminthiasis in the world [5].
Soil-transmitted helminths are mainly transmitted by eggs that are passed in the feces of infected people. The adult worms live in the intestine, where they produce thousands of eggs each day, which may contaminate the environment, vegetables, and other food items that lack adequate sanitation [7–9]. The infections are mostly abundant among communities, particularly children, living in areas where there is no access to basic infrastructural amenities such as potable water supply, hygiene, and sanitary facilities [10–12]. Children are the most vulnerable group for STH infections due to their practice of walking and playing barefoot, frequent contact with contaminated soil, and poor personal hygiene [13].
High-intensity STH infections and polyparasitism may cause severe clinical manifestations in children, including abdominal pain, diarrhea, blood and protein loss, anemia, and rectal prolapse [5]. Chronic and subclinical infections could lead to stunting, reduced body mass index, and impaired physical and cognitive development in children [14]. Apart from the direct morbidity, STH infections could lead to low school enrollment, reduced school performance, and absenteeism [15], ultimately slowing educational advancement and economic development of endemic countries.
In SSA, helminth infections account for up to 85% of the neglected tropical diseases' burden, with up to one-third of the SSA population infected by one or more STH species [16]. Children, especially SAC, are the most affected in the region, with over 41 million children estimated to have been parasitized with at least one STH species [17]. In the past decades, there have been reports of a substantial reduction in the intensity of STH infections as a result of preventive chemotherapy and improved water, sanitation, and hygiene programs across Africa [17, 18]. Nevertheless, it remains a public health concern in many African countries and continues to cause major socioeconomic problems in the region [19].
Ethiopia is one of the SSA countries carrying the highest burden of STH infections, with an estimated 9 million preschool-aged children and 25 million SAC living in STH endemic areas [20, 21]. Since 2013, periodic mass drug administration (MDA) using single-dose albendazole (400 mg) or mebendazole (500 mg) has been widely implemented against STH in children in endemic areas of the country with the aim of eliminating STH-related morbidity by reducing moderate- and heavy-intensity infections to less than 1% by 2020 and interrupting the transmission by 2025 [20, 21]. Despite the national strategies implemented to lessen the burden of STH infections through preventive chemotherapy, the disease still remains a major public health concern in many parts of Ethiopia [22]. To evaluate the likely success of this control program, it is crucial to monitor the transmission of STH and identify the contributing factors, especially in peri-urban settings where environmental sanitation is modest. This study was conducted to determine the prevalence and determinants of STH infections among SAC in peri-urban areas of Jimma City, Southwestern Ethiopia.
2. Methods
2.1. Study Design and Setting
A community-based cross-sectional study was carried out in five peri-urban Kebeles (the smallest administration unit in Ethiopia) of Jimma City from July to September, 2021. Jimma City is located at 356 km southwest of Addis Ababa, the capital city of Ethiopia. The city is characterized by a semiarid type of climate with an average annual rainfall of 800–2,500 mm and a temperature range of 20–30°C [23]. The total population of Jimma City was estimated to be 205,384 in 2018 [24]. The city is administratively divided into 17 Kebeles (12 urban and 5 peri-urban Kebeles) [25]. The study area has been under biannual MDA since 2013.
2.2. Sample Size and Sampling Procedure
The sample size was determined using a single population proportion formula assuming STH prevalence of 21.7% obtained from the national mapping of STH and Schistosome infections in Ethiopia [22]. By using 95% confidence interval, a marginal error of 5%, and a design effect of 2, the total sample size was calculated to be 522. All of the five peri-urban Kebeles of Jimma City were included in the study. Systematic random sampling was used to select 522 households, and one school-aged child (5–15 years old) was selected for participation in the study from each household. A lottery method was used to select SAC from the households that had more than one child. The sample size was allocated proportionally to each study site based on the number of households in each Kebele.
2.3. Qualitative Data Collection and Processing
Data on sociodemographic characteristics of the SAC, personal hygiene practices, and other potential risk factors for STH infections were collected using a pretested structured questionnaire. The questionnaire was first prepared in English and then translated into the local language of the study area (Afaan Oromoo). After obtaining written informed consent from the household head of the SAC, trained community health workers conversant in the local language conducted the house-to-house survey to collect the qualitative data.
2.4. Stool Sample Collection and Examination
A single stool sample (about 5 g) was collected from each study participant using a clean and leak-proof screw cap container and labelled with a unique identification number. All collected stool samples were stored in a plastic bag and transported to the Medical Parasitology Laboratory of Jimma University within 2 hours. The samples were then processed using Kato–Katz smear and examined microscopically to detect ova of the STH and quantify the intensity of infections based on fecal egg count (eggs per gram) according to the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines [26].
2.5. Data Analysis
Data were checked for completeness and entered into EpiData version 4.6 and then exported to SPSS version 25.0 for analysis. The dependent variable was the binary presence of any STH among the SAC. All independent variables including sociodemographic characteristics, personal hygiene practices, sanitation, and behavioral factors were treated as categorical variables and presented as frequencies and percentages. A chi-square test was used to identify any association between STH infections and the independent variables. Both bivariate and multivariable logistic regression analyses were used to identify the candidate variables and determinants of STH infections, respectively. Bivariate logistic regression analysis was used to identify variables with p values ≤0.25. Multivariable logistic regression analysis was performed to identify the predictors of STH infections among SAC. Adjusted odds ratio (AOR) with 95% confidence intervals was computed, and a p value less than 0.05 was considered statistically significant during the analysis.
3. Results
3.1. Sociodemographic Characteristics of the Study Participants
Out of 522 enrolled SAC, complete data (samples) were obtained from 478 (91.6%) children. Of the 478 SAC, 259 (54.2%) were males and 219 (45.8%) were females. The mean age of the study participants was 8.89 ± 2.83 years. The majority (88.1%) of the SAC were enrolled at school. Overall, 62% and 64.8% of the children's fathers and mothers had completed primary education, respectively. One-third of the fathers were engaged in agricultural activity, while 44.3% of mothers were housewives (Table 1).
Table 1.
Sociodemographic characteristics of school-age children in peri-urban Kebeles of Jimma City, Ethiopia, July to September 2021.
| Variables | Categories | Frequency | Percent (%) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Sex | Male | 259 | 54.2 |
| Female | 219 | 45.8 | |
|
| |||
| Age | 5–10 | 351 | 73.4 |
| 11–15 | 127 | 26.6 | |
|
| |||
| Educational status of SAC | Not enrolled to school | 57 | 11.9 |
| Enrolled to school | 421 | 88.1 | |
|
| |||
| Father's educational status | Cannot read and write | 69 | 16.0 |
| Primary (1–8) | 268 | 62.0 | |
| Secondary (9–12) | 67 | 15.5 | |
| High school and above 12 | 28 | 6.5 | |
|
| |||
| Mother's education | Cannot read and write | 94 | 19.8 |
| Primary (1–8) | 308 | 64.8 | |
| Secondary (9–12) | 49 | 10.3 | |
| High school and above 12 | 24 | 5.1 | |
|
| |||
| Father's occupation | Civil servant | 123 | 28.5 |
| Merchant | 69 | 16.0 | |
| Daily laborer | 97 | 22.5 | |
| Farmer | 134 | 31.0 | |
| Others∗ | 9 | 2.1 | |
|
| |||
| Mother's occupation | Housewives | 210 | 44.3 |
| Merchant | 33 | 7.0 | |
| Civil servant | 64 | 13.5 | |
| Daily laborer | 78 | 16.5 | |
| Farmer | 89 | 18.8 | |
∗ Drivers and tailors.
3.2. Prevalence of STH among School-Age Children
Overall, 140 (29.3%) and 112 (23.4%) of the SAC were positive for at least one species of intestinal helminths and STH, respectively. Ascaris lumbricoides was the most predominant STH species, detected in 15.7% of study participants, followed by T. trichiura (9.0%) and hookworm (2.1%). In addition to the STH, five cases of Schistosoma mansoni, thirty-one cases of Hymenolepis nana, six cases of Enterobius vermicularis, and one case of Taenia species were identified in the stool specimens. The majority (86.6%) of the SAC were infected by single species of STH, while double and triple infections were found in 12.5% and 0.9% of the SAC, respectively. Double infections were mainly due to A. lumbricoides and T. trichiura (Figure 1).
Figure 1.
Prevalence of STH infections among school-age children in peri-urban Kebeles of Jimma City, Ethiopia. Note: AL, A. lumbricoides; TT, T. trichiura; HW, hookworm.
Most of the SAC infected with A. lumbricoides (82.7%) and T. trichiura (95.3%) and all infected with hookworm had a light infection intensity, and no heavy infection intensity was detected in any cases. The overall geometric mean fecal egg count for A. lumbricoides, T. trichiura, and hookworm was 688.8, 146.7, and 170.7 eggs per gram (EPG), respectively (Table 2)
Table 2.
Intensity of STH infections among SAC in the peri-urban Kebeles of Jimma City, Ethiopia, July to September 2021 (n = 748).
| STH species | Number of STH cases (%) | Infection intensity | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Geometric mean EPG (95% CI) | Light (%) | Moderate (%) | ||
| A. lumbricoides | 75 (15.7) | 688.8 (457.1–1007.7) | 62 (82.7) | 13 (17.3) |
| T. trichiura | 43 (9.0) | 146.7 (107.4–202.0) | 41 (95.3) | 2 (4.7) |
| Hookworm | 10 (2.1) | 170.7 (107.0–282.2) | 10 (100) | 0 |
| Overall | 128 | 367.4 (278.0–480.0) | 113 (88.3) | 15 (11.7) |
EPG: eggs per gram; CI: confidence interval.
3.3. Water Supply, Sanitation, and Hygiene- (WASH-) Related Conditions of SAC's Households
Overall, 97.1% of the SAC's households had access to an improved source of water for drinking. Protected well/spring was the most commonly used source of water by the households both for drinking and domestic use. Most (93.7%) of the households had private toilet facilities, while 4.8% of them reported that they shared toilet facilities with neighbors and 1.5% practiced open defecation. The majority (57.5%) of the households used improved toilet facilities (traditional pit latrines with slab, ventilated improved latrines, and flush latrines), but only 12.9% of them had hand washing facilities around the latrines. Most of the households practiced improper solid and liquid waste disposal systems (Table 3).
Table 3.
Water supply, sanitation, and hygiene conditions of SAC's households and distribution of STH among the SAC in the peri-urban Kebeles of Jimma City, Ethiopia.
| Variables | Categories | STH prevalence | Total n (%) | |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Positive n (%) | Negative n (%) | |||
| Hygiene | ||||
| Hand washing before meal | Always | 72 (17.6) | 336 (82.4) | 408 (85.3) |
| Often | 40 (57.1) | 30 (42.9) | 70 (14.6) | |
| Hand washing after defecation | Always | 70 (17.1) | 340 (82.9) | 410 (85.8) |
| Often | 41 (64.1) | 23 (35.9) | 64 (13.4) | |
| Sometimes | 1 (25) | 3 (75) | 4 (0.8) | |
| Washing/peeling fruits before eating | Always | 41 (16.8) | 203 (81.2) | 244 (51.0) |
| Often | 47 (26.7) | 129 (73.3) | 176 (36.8) | |
| Sometimes | 24 (41.4) | 34 (58.6) | 58 (12.1) | |
| Status finger nail | Trimmed | 48 (14.6) | 280 (85.4) | 328 (68.6) |
| Untrimmed | 64 (42.7) | 86 (53.3) | 150 (31.4) | |
| Hand washing facility on premises | Available with soap and water | 6 (22.2) | 21 (77.8) | 27 (6.0) |
| Available without soap and water | 9 (29.0) | 22 (71.0) | 31 (6.9) | |
| Not available | 84 (21.5) | 306 (78.5) | 390 (87.1) | |
| Hand washing after contact with soil | Always | 54 (17.8) | 250 (82.2) | 304 (63.6) |
| Often | 47 (31.5) | 102 (68.5) | 149 (31.2) | |
| Sometimes | 11 (47.8) | 12 (52.2) | 23 (4.8) | |
| Fingernail biting/sucking habits | Yes | 36 (31.9) | 77 (68.1) | 113 (23.6) |
| No | 76 (20.8) | 289 (79.2) | 365 (55.4) | |
|
| ||||
| Sanitation | ||||
| Latrine availability | Yes | 99 (22.1) | 349 (77.9) | 448 (93.7) |
| No | 13 (56.7) | 17 (43.3) | 30 (6.3) | |
| Status of the latrine facilities | Improved | 41 (14.9) | 234 (85.1) | 275 (57.5) |
| Unimproved | 71 (35.0) | 132 (65.0) | 203 (42.5) | |
| Shoe wearing habit | Always | 30 (15.1) | 169 (84.9) | 199 (41.6) |
| Often | 70 (27.8) | 182 (72.2) | 252 (52.7) | |
| Sometimes | 12 (46.2) | 14 (53.8) | 26 (5.4) | |
|
| ||||
| Water source | ||||
| Drinking water source | Protected/improved | 111 (23.9) | 353 (76.1) | 464 (97.1) |
| Unprotected | 1 (7.1) | 13 (92.9) | 14 (2.9) | |
| Water source for domestic use | Protected/improved | 98 (23.2) | 325 (76.8) | 423 (88.5) |
| Unprotected | 14 (25.5) | 41 (74.5) | 55 (11.5) | |
|
| ||||
| Waste disposal | ||||
| Proper solid waste disposal | Yes | 9 (16.7) | 45 (83.3) | 54 (11.3) |
| No | 103 (24.3) | 321 (75.7) | 424 (88.7) | |
| Proper liquid waste disposal | Yes | 3 (27.3) | 8 (72.7) | 11 (2.3) |
| No | 109 (23.3) | 358 (76.7) | 467 (97.7) | |
Improved toilet facilities include traditional pit latrines with slab, ventilated pit latrines, and flush latrines. Unimproved toilet facilities include pit latrines without slab. Protected water source includes tap water, tube hole/borehole, and protected well/spring. Unprotected water source includes unprotected hole/spring and surface water.
3.4. Factors Associated with STH Infections among SAC
Multivariable logistic regression analysis showed that location of Kebele, hand washing after defecation, status of the fingernails, and history of deworming had a significant association with STH infections in SAC (Table 4). Children living in Kofe Kebele were 2.7 (AOR = 2.73, 95% CI: 1.21–6.16) times more likely to be infected with STH compared to those residing in Ifabula Kebele. The prevalence of STH infections was 6.4 (AOR = 6.39, 95% CI: 3.16–12.95) times higher among children who often wash their hands after defecation as compared to those who always wash their hands after defecation. The odds of having STH were 2.6 (AOR = 2.65, 95% CI: 1.56–4.51) times higher among children who had untrimmed fingernails as compared to children who had trimmed their fingernails. Children who were not reportedly dewormed during the last MDA in 2020 were 2.9 (AOR = 2.90, 95% CI: 1.47–5.74) times more at risk of being infected with STH as compared to those who were treated (Table 4).
Table 4.
Factors associated with soil-transmitted helminth infection among the SAC of peri-urban Kebeles of Jimma City, Ethiopia.
| Variables | Categories | Soil-transmitted helminths | OR (95% CI) | p value | AOR (95% CI) | p value | |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Positive N(%) | Negative N(%) | ||||||
| Kebeles | Bore | 40 (32.3) | 84 (67.7) | 1.67 (0.94–2.96) | 0.082∗ | 1.43 (0.67–3.07) | 0.355 |
| Kofe | 20 (34.5) | 38 (65.5) | 1.84 (0.92–3.69) | 0.085∗ | 2.73 (1.21–6.16) | 0.016∗∗ | |
| Hora Gibe | 10 (25.6) | 29 (74.4) | 1.21 (0.52–2.80) | 0.661 | 2.06 (0.79–5.34) | 0.138 | |
| Jiren | 16 (11.4) | 124 (88.6) | 0.45 (0.23–0.89) | 0.022∗∗ | 0.62 (0.28–1.37) | 0.238 | |
| Ifabula | 26 (22.2) | 91 (77.8) | 1 | 1 | |||
|
| |||||||
| Age | 5–10 | 84 (23.9) | 267 (67.1) | 1.11 (0.68–1.81) | 0.668 | — | — |
| 11–15 | 28 (22) | 99 (78) | 1 | ||||
|
| |||||||
| Sex | Male | 63 (24.3) | 196 (75.7) | 1.11 (0.73–1.71) | 0.616 | — | — |
| Female | 49 (22.4) | 170 (77.6) | 1 | ||||
|
| |||||||
| Educational status SAC | Not enrolled at school | 19 (33.3) | 38 (66.7) | 1.76 (0.97–3.20) | 0.063∗ | 0.70 (0.30–1.60) | 0.406 |
| Enrolled at school | 93 (22.1) | 328 (77.9) | 1 | 1 | |||
|
| |||||||
| Decision-making autonomy in HH | Heads of the household | 101 (26.7) | 277 (73.3) | 2.95 (1.51–5.74) | 0.001∗ | 1.88 (0.88–4.04) | 0.102 |
| A consensus of all family | 11 (11) | 89 (89) | 1 | 1 | |||
|
| |||||||
| Mother's educational status | Cannot read and write | 32 (34) | 62 (66) | 3.61 (1.00–13.00) | 0.05∗ | 2.11 (0.50–8.91) | 0.306 |
| Primary (1–8) | 68 (22.1) | 240 (77.9) | 1.98 (0.57–6.84) | 0.279∗ | 1.07 (0.27–4.20) | 0.923 | |
| Secondary (9–12) | 9 (18.4) | 40 (81.6) | 1.57 (0.38–6.44) | 0.528 | 0.89 (0.18–4.41) | 0.888 | |
| High school and above 12 | 3 (12.5) | 21 (87.5) | 1 | 1 | |||
|
| |||||||
| Mother's occupation | Housewife | 39 (18.6) | 171 (81.4) | 1 | 1 | 1 | |
| Merchant | 5 (15.2) | 28 (84.8) | 0.78 (0.28–2.15) | 0.636 | 0.80 (0.21–2.92) | 0.734 | |
| Civil servant | 12 (18.8) | 52 (81.2) | 1.01 (0.49–2.07) | 0.974 | 1.21 (0.50–2.91) | 0.668 | |
| Daily laborer | 38 (35.8) | 68 (64.2) | 2.59 (1.45–4.61) | 0.001∗ | 1.71 (0.84–3.43) | 0.133 | |
| Farmer | 18 (29.5) | 43 (77.8) | 1.91 (1.08–3.37) | 0.026∗ | 1.04 (0.43–2.45) | 0.934 | |
|
| |||||||
| Wealth status | Low | 48 (31.8) | 103 (68.2) | 2.16 (1.27–3.69) | 0.005∗ | 1.09 (0.50–2.39 | 0.816 |
| Medium | 36 (21.3) | 133 (78.7) | 1.26 (0.72–2.18) | 0.415 | 1.46 (0.65–3.25) | 0.352 | |
| High | 28 (17.7) | 130 (82.3) | 1 | 1 | |||
|
| |||||||
| Family size | ≤5 | 62 (26.8) | 169 (73.2) | 1 | 1 | ||
| >5 | 50 (20.2) | 197 (79.8) | 0.69 (0.45–1.06) | 0.09∗ | 0.82 (0.47–1.42) | 0.481 | |
|
| |||||||
| Latrine availability | Yes | 99 (22.1) | 349 (77.9) | 1 | 1 | ||
| No | 13 (56.7) | 17 (43.3) | 2.69 (1.26–5.74) | 0.01∗ | 1.14 (0.34–3.82) | 0.832 | |
|
| |||||||
| Hand washing after defecation | Always | 70 (17.1) | 340 (82.9) | 1 | 1 | ||
| Often | 41 (64.1) | 23 (35.9) | 8.66 (4.89–15.34) | <0.001∗ | 6.39 (3.16–12.95) | <0.001∗∗ | |
| Sometimes | 1 (25) | 3 (75) | 1.62 (0.16–15.79) | 0.678 | 2.11 (0.20–21.74) | 0.531 | |
|
| |||||||
| Hand washing before meals | Always | 72 (17.6) | 336 (82.4) | 1 | 1 | ||
| Often | 40 (57.1) | 30 (42.9) | 6.22 (3.63–10.56) | <0.001∗∗ | 1.65 (0.69–3.95) | 0.260 | |
|
| |||||||
| Washing/peeling fruits before eating | Always | 41 (16.8) | 203 (81.2) | 1 | 1 | ||
| Often | 47 (26.7) | 129 (73.3) | 1.80 (1.12–2.89) | 0.015∗ | 0.72 (0.36–1.42) | 0.349 | |
| Sometimes | 24 (41.4) | 34 (58.6) | 3.49 (1.87–6.50) | <0.001∗ | 1.009 (0.43–2.36) | 0.983 | |
|
| |||||||
| Hand washing after contact with soil | Always | 54 (17.8) | 250 (82.2) | 1 | 1 | ||
| Often | 47 (31.5) | 102 (68.5) | 2.13 (1.35–3.35) | 0.001∗ | 0.98 (0.47–2.02) | 0.956 | |
| Sometimes | 11 (47.8) | 12 (52.2) | 4.24 (1.77–10.12) | 0.001∗ | 1.14 (0.314.22) | 0.845 | |
|
| |||||||
| Shoe wearing | Always | 30 (15.1) | 169 (84.9) | 1 | 1 | ||
| Often | 70 (27.8) | 182 (72.2) | 2.17 (1.34–3.48) | 0.001∗ | 1.21 (0.67–2.21) | 0.517 | |
| Sometimes | 12 (46.2 | 14 (53.8) | 4.83 (2.03–11.44) | <0.001∗ | 2.82 (0.99–8.02) | 0.051 | |
|
| |||||||
| Fingernail biting/sucking habits | Yes | 36 (31.9) | 77 (68.1) | 1.78 (1.11–2.84) | 0.016∗ | 1.08 (0.57–2.0) | 0.809 |
| No | 76 (20.8) | 289 (79.2) | 1 | 1 | |||
|
| |||||||
| Status of fingernail | Trimmed | 48 (14.6) | 280 (85.4) | 1 | 1 | ||
| Untrimmed | 64 (42.7) | 86 (53.3) | 4.34 (2.78–6.78) | <0.001∗ | 2.65 (1.56–4.51) | <0.001∗∗ | |
|
| |||||||
| Presence of children <5 years of age in the household | Yes | 60 (25.9) | 172 (74.1) | 1.30 (0.85–1.98) | 0.224∗ | 1.26 (0.73–2.18) | 0.405 |
| No | 52 (21.1) | 194 (78.9) | 1 | ||||
|
| |||||||
| Presence of domestic animal | Yes | 25 (19.7) | 102 (80.3) | 0.744 (0.45–1.23) | 0.246∗ | 1.09 (0.57–2.07) | 0.793 |
| No | 87 (24.8) | 264 (75.2) | 1 | 1 | |||
|
| |||||||
| Previous history of STH infection | Yes | 59 (28.6) | 147 (71.4) | 1.65 (1.08–2.54) | 0.02∗ | 1.52 (0.918–2.54) | 0.103 |
| No | 53 (19.5) | 219 (81.5) | 1 | 1 | |||
|
| |||||||
| Previous history of STH infection among families | Yes | 71 (25.5) | 207 (74.5) | 1.50 (0.94–2.39) | 0.083∗ | 0.60 (0.28–1.26) | 0.182 |
| No | 33 (18.5) | 145 (81.5) | 1 | 1 | |||
|
| |||||||
| History of deworming | Yes | 74 (18.4) | 329 (80.6) | 1 | 1 | ||
| No | 38 (50.7) | 37 (49.3) | 4.56 (2.72–7.66) | <0.001∗ | 2.90 (1.47–5.74) | 0.002∗∗ | |
Key; ∗ = variables at p ≤ 0.25 in bivariate logistic regression, ∗∗predictor variables in multivariate logistic regression at p < 0.05 and 1 refers to reference group.
4. Discussion
In Ethiopia, intensive STH control through periodic MDA among children has been widely implemented with the aim of interrupting the transmission of STH in endemic areas by 2025. In this study, the overall prevalence of at least one species of STH among SAC in peri-urban areas of Jimma City was 23.4%, indicating that the transmission is still ongoing in the community at a level of public health concern. Recent studies conducted in Sekela, Western Ethiopia, and Blue Nile Basin, Northwest Ethiopia, have also reported a similar magnitude of STH infection prevalence among SAC [27, 28].
According to the WHO, STH endemic areas are classified into three transmission categories in line with the application of MDA in SAC [26]. These are high-risk areas where STH infection prevalence exceeds 50%, moderate-risk areas with parasite prevalence between 20% and 50%, and low-risk areas with STH prevalence below 20%. Based on this category, the current study areas would be classified into the moderate risk level, suggesting that control measures should be intensified to further reduce STH prevalence and transmission among the SAC.
The overall STH prevalence (23.4%) reported in this study is lower than the findings of earlier studies conducted in SAC in Jimma City (48.4% to 55%) [23, 29–31]. The lower STH prevalence documented in the current study might be due to improvements in sanitation practice. In the previous studies conducted in Jimma City, open field defecation was found to be one of the main factors contributing to STH transmission in SAC [30]. In this study, most (93.7%) of the SAC reported having latrines on their premises. Similarly, the overall STH prevalence documented in this study is lower compared to studies conducted in different localities of Ethiopia such as Chencha district (39.4%), Sigmo district (41.7%), Ejaji town (38.2%), Gamo Gofa zone (33.3%), and northwest parts of Ethiopia (32.3%) [32–36], as well as studies conducted in other countries such as Rwanda (77.7%), Nigeria (59.2%), Indonesia (33.8% to 57.2%), and Malaysia (78.1%) [37–41].
On the other hand, the overall prevalence of STH documented in this study is higher than that of studies conducted in Ambo town (12.6%), Goro (15.8%), and Babile town (0.47%) in Ethiopia [42–44], Zambia (14.4%) [45], and Kenya (17%) [46]. Such variations could be attributed to differences in personal hygiene, environmental sanitation, availability of adequate and safe water supply, and the socioeconomic status of the community [47]. Differences in diagnostic methods used for the detection of STH could also contribute to the variations in STH prevalence documented in different studies. The Kato–Katz technique was used in the present study, while McMaster and formol-ether concentration techniques were used in studies conducted in Ambo, Goro, and Babile [42–44]. In this study, the prevalence of STH varied even between the peri-urban Kebeles, indicating that STH prevalence could also vary between villages within a defined geographical area. Other studies have also documented a considerable and distinct spatial heterogeneity of STH infection prevalence and intensity [23, 48, 49].
In this study, A. lumbricoides was the most prevalent STH (15.7%) among the SAC, followed by T. trichiura (9%) and hookworm (2.1%). The predominance of A. lumbricoides is consistent with the findings of other studies conducted among SAC in different parts of Ethiopia [27, 29, 32, 34, 36, 42, 50] and abroad [37, 39, 45]. The higher prevalence of A. lumbricoides could be due to the fact that Ascaris eggs can withstand harsh environmental conditions more than the other species of STH and can easily sustain its transmission [51, 52]. In contrast to the present study, several other studies have reported the predominance of hookworm over the other STH species [33, 35, 43, 53, 54]. This difference might be due to differences in prevention measures used, climate variability, and other environmental factors. For instance, in settings where children often walk barefoot, hookworm is more prevalent as the infection occurs through skin penetration by larvae of the parasite [53]. In the current study, most of the SAC (94%) reported that they often wear shoes, and this might have contributed to the lower hookworm infection prevalence in this study. It has been documented that climate variability may also favor the occurrence of hookworm species due to its unique ability to undergo developmental arrest as dauer larvae in human tissues as a means of surviving extreme weather conditions [55–57]. Reports of the national STH prevalence survey also showed that A. lumbricoides is the predominant species in the highland and coldest regions of Ethiopia, such as Oromia and the southern region, while hookworm is more prevalent in the warmest regions, such as Benishangul-Gumuz and Gambella [22].
The reduction in moderate-to-heavy intensity infections is one of the indicators of the STH control program's success. STH is considered a public health problem by the WHO if at least 1% of SAC have moderate-to-heavy intensity infections [58]. In this study, about 88.3% of the STH-positive SAC had light-intensity infections, while the remaining 11.7% had moderate infections, indicating that STHs are still a public health problem in the study area. Although the overall prevalence of STH infections among SAC in this study is significantly reduced compared to the previous studies conducted in the study area before the commencement of MDA [29, 31], the prevalence of moderate-to-heavy STH infections in the current study is higher than the national report (2%) [22], suggesting that periodic deworming and other prevention measures should be strengthened in the area to further reduce the burden of STH.
In the present study, hand washing habit, status of the fingernail, deworming status, and location of the Kebeles were the key predictors of STH infections among SAC. Children who do not wash their hands after latrine use were six times more likely to be infected with STH compared to those who always wash their hands. This finding is consistent with studies conducted in different settings in Ethiopia [27, 28, 34, 59] and abroad [38, 41]. Moreover, children who had untrimmed fingernails were 2.6 times more likely to be infected with STH as compared to those who had trimmed their fingernails. Other studies have also reported a contribution of untrimmed fingernails to increased STH transmission among SAC [27, 35, 42]. This highlights the need to strengthen health education and awareness creation for SAC to improve their personal hygiene in order to interrupt the transmission of STH.
Children who had not taken anthelminthic drugs within one year of the study were three times more likely to be infected with STH as compared to their counterparts. A similar study was reported from India, where children who never took antihelminthics were more affected by STH than their counterparts [60].
The limitation of this study is that the prevalence and infection intensity of STH were determined by examination of a single stool specimen from each study participant. This may underestimate the actual STH infection prevalence among the SAC.
5. Conclusion
The findings of this study showed moderate level of STH infection prevalence among SAC living in the peri-urban areas of Jimma City. The higher prevalence of moderate-intensity STH infection (11.7%) above the target level (<1%) set by the national STH control program indicates that STHs are still a major health problem of the community of the peri-urban Kebeles. Lack of hand washing habit after latrine use, untrimmed fingernails, and lack of access to deworming were the key predictors of the STH infections among the SAC. Strengthening periodic deworming and provision of personal and environmental hygiene education and adequate sanitation facilities are required in order to eliminate STH as a public health problem and break transmission in children by 2025.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to the household heads and their children for their cooperation in participating and providing the necessary information and stool samples. We would like to thank the laboratory technologists in the Parasitology and Microbiology laboratories of Jimma University particularly Dr. Mio Ayana and Mr. Bizuwork Sharew for their technical support during the laboratory work. We are grateful to the School of Medical Laboratory Sciences, Jimma University, for providing laboratory facilities and material support. We would also like to extend our heartfelt appreciation to the Jimma City Health Office for their cooperation. Special acknowledgment also goes to the Center for International Health at Ludwig Maximilian University (CIH-LMU) for facilitation and support of this project. This work was supported by the Bavarian State Government through the Center for International Health Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität (CIH-LMU).
Abbreviations
- AOR:
Adjusted odds ratio
- CI:
Confidence interval
- EPG:
Eggs per gram
- MDA:
Mass drug administration
- OR:
Odds ratio
- SAC:
School-age children
- SSA:
Sub-Saharan Africa
- STH:
Soil-transmitted helminth
- WHO:
World Health Organization.
Data Availability
The data supporting the conclusion of this article are included within the article. The raw data are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.
Ethical Approval
This study was approved by Jimma University Institutional Review Board (IRB) (Reference No. IHRP/227/21). Permission to conduct the study was obtained from Jimma Zone Health Bureau. Confidentiality of an individual's information was maintained during data collection, analysis, and interpretation. Individuals found positive for any intestinal parasites were treated with appropriate antihelminthics by the study nurse.
Consent
Informed consent was obtained from each household head prior to involvement in the study.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Authors' Contributions
AZ and TD conceived and designed the study protocol. AZ, TD, SS, AA, and ZH were involved in supervision and investigation of the study. ZH was involved in laboratory work and data analysis. TD analyzed the data and drafted the manuscript. AZ and AW critically reviewed the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final manuscript.
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Associated Data
This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.
Data Availability Statement
The data supporting the conclusion of this article are included within the article. The raw data are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.