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. 2023 Nov 20;8(48):45224–45231. doi: 10.1021/acsomega.3c07129

The Impact of Corrosion Inhibitors in Desalination Systems

Hamdy Khamees Thabet †, Omnia A A El-Shamy ‡, Ashraf M Ashmawy §, Mohamed A Deyab ‡,*
PMCID: PMC10702318  PMID: 38075840

Abstract

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In this review, the importance of corrosion inhibitors in desalination plants is briefly discussed, with an emphasis on the various types for effective corrosion control techniques. The review highlighted the most significant corrosion inhibitors used in desalination plants for minimizing the corrosiveness of the source water throughout pretreatment, reverse osmosis, and post-treatment stages. Water composition, temperature and pressure, pH, dissolved oxygen, flow velocity, chloride content, fouling, and scaling are all described as factors affecting corrosion in desalinated water. The types of corrosion inhibitors used in desalination plants are summarized, including inorganic inhibitors, organic inhibitors, and eco-friendly inhibitors. Environmental issues and long-term inhibition are highlighted briefly.

1. Introduction

Massive economic losses and societal harm are caused by metal corrosion in our daily lives and economic output.1,2 According to statistics, the corrosion of metal materials and equipment is responsible for nearly 1/3 of the global yearly output of metal scrap. This loss is six times greater than the amount lost as a result of typhoons, earthquakes, floods, and other natural calamities.3−5 An effective technique to achieve water augmentation and address the issue of fresh water lakes is by seawater desalination, seawater cooling, and comprehensive saltwater utilization. However, the majority of metals and alloys used in maritime operations inevitably corroded since the sea is a rich source of natural electrolytes.

The rate of corrosion in desalination plants is influenced by several factors, such as:6−9

  • a.

    Water Composition: Corrosion rates are greatly influenced by the chemical makeup of the water, which includes the quantity of chloride, pH, dissolved gases, and contaminants.

  • b.

    Temperature: elevated temperatures can hasten the corrosion process and make metal parts prone to corrosion.

  • c.

    Velocity and Flow Conditions: By encouraging erosion-corrosion, high flow rates or turbulent flow conditions can raise corrosion rates.

  • d.

    Choosing the right materials for the desalination system’s components is essential. High-corrosion materials are frequently chosen, such as stainless steel or alloys resistant to corrosion.

Desalination system corrosion can have a number of harmful effects:10−13

  • a.

    Decreased Efficiency: Corroded parts can impair the desalination system’s performance and efficiency, which can result in lower output and higher energy usage.

  • b.

    Prices of maintenance and repairs are raised as a result of corrosion-related failures, which also cause system downtime and higher replacement part prices.

  • c.

    Risks of Contamination: Corrosion products can contaminate product water, lowering its quality and perhaps leading to operational problems farther downstream.

Consequently, a promising approach to reducing the negative consequences of corrosion in desalinated water is corrosion inhibitors.14−16 The application of corrosion inhibitors in desalination plants is hypothesized to successfully minimize or avoid corrosion in the plant’s structures and machinery. The concept is that by injecting particular substances or additives within the system, the inhibitors will develop a protective coating on the metal surfaces, slowing corrosion and increasing the equipment’s lifespan. Corrosion inhibitors are thought to act by a variety of methods, including passivation (the creation of a protecting oxide layer), adsorption over the surface of the metal, and neutralization of corrosive molecules in the surrounding environment. According to the idea, the inhibitors are going to interact with the corrosive chemicals present in the working conditions of the desalination plant, minimizing their negative effects on the structure and avoiding or decreasing corrosion-related damage. It is important to note that the efficiency of corrosion inhibitors varies based on the individual environmental conditions, metal types concerned, and inhibitor chemicals utilized. To confirm that concept in the framework of desalination infrastructure, comprehensive examination and inspection are required.

Corrosion inhibitors often function by either establishing a protective layer on the metal surface or by altering the electrochemical properties of the corrosion process.17−19 They can be divided into organic, inorganic, mixed, and green inhibitors, each of which have a distinctive mode of action and are suitable for a particular desalination procedure.20,21

Because they do not include heavy metals or other dangerous substances, green corrosion inhibitors have a bright future for the environment’s quality. Additionally, they are a renewable resource of resources and biodegradable.22 A variety of drugs23,24 and natural substances25 were evaluated as green corrosion inhibitors for steels in corrosive environments.

The objective of this review is to evaluate the efficacy, limits, and possible uses of corrosion inhibitors in minimizing corrosion-related concerns in the desalination process. The purpose of this study is to give a complete examination of the present state of knowledge about corrosion inhibitors in desalination, including their methods of action, performance, and practical issues. An overview of the significance of corrosion inhibitors in the desalination plants is provided in this review, emphasizing the different types for efficient corrosion control methods. Factors affecting corrosion rate are considered. In addition, the authors concern, the eco-friendly inhibitors are also considered.

A novel feature in the review might arise from investigating the application of innovative or less often researched chemicals as corrosion inhibitors in the desalination process. This can involve looking at other chemical formulations, eco-friendly inhibitors, or substances created especially for desalination procedures.

2. Corrosion Inhibitors in Desalination Plants

The use of corrosion inhibitors in desalination plants is essential for guaranteeing the safety and durability of the infrastructure and machinery. To lessen the corrosive effects of the water and increase the component lifespan, corrosion inhibitors are used at various stages of the desalination process. The main uses of corrosion inhibitors in desalination facilities are covered in this section.

2.1. Pre-Treatment Stage

Corrosion inhibitors can be used in desalination plants to reduce the corrosiveness of the source water during the pretreatment phase. Filtration, coagulation, and chemical dosing are pretreatment techniques to remove suspended solids, organic debris, and specific ions that could cause corrosion. To initially protect the equipment downstream, corrosion inhibitors might be introduced at this step. Boyapati and Kanukula investigated the inhibitory effect of 1,2,3-benzotriazole toward the oxidization of Cu-Ni (90/10) alloy in seawater and seawater contaminated with inorganic sulphide. According to the studies, 1,2,3-benzotriazole has an inhibition effectiveness that ranges from 99.97% to 99.30% under various circumstances.26

2.2. Reverse Osmosis Stage

The high pressure and salt concentration present during the reverse osmosis stage of desalination plants is the main reason for corrosion. To inhibit corrosion of the membranes, high-pressure pumps, and related equipment, corrosion inhibitors are frequently added to the reverse osmoses feedwater. The inhibitors reduce corrosion rates and minimize fouling by forming a protective coating on the metal surfaces. Industrial coatings, polymeric protective coatings, and rubber membranes are used for shielding the desalination contents.27 For improved coating behavior regarding corrosion resistance, clay, phosphate, and epoxy nanocomposites are used.28 To prevent corrosion, stainless steel components can be coated with polyaniline/Zn-Porphyrin composite coatings.29

2.3. Post-Treatment Stage

Anticorrosion materials are utilized in the post-treatment phase of desalination plants to safeguard the storage tanks, distribution pipelines, and other parts that come into touch with the desalinated water. The inhibitors assist in maintaining the water quality, stopping the corrosion of the infrastructure, and guaranteeing that consumers receive safe, corrosion-free water.

3. Factors Affecting Corrosion in Desalinated Water

3.1. Water Composition

One crucial variable affecting corrosion rates is the composition of desalinated water. The presence of different ions, dissolved gases, and contaminants can considerably impact the corrosiveness of the water. Due to the calcium and magnesium ions present in the metal surface sedimentation of Ca2CO3 and Mg(OH)2, the salinity in saltwater does not behave as NaCl would expect. This is because the metal has a protective function. In the estuary region, the seawater’s salinity is lower than it is in the sea, its calcium and magnesium concentration is lower, and its metal-corrosiveness is higher.4

3.2. Temperature and Pressure

Pressure and temperature both have a significant impact on how corrosion behaves. Increased corrosion rates can result from elevated temperatures because they can make metal surfaces more reactive with their corrosive surroundings. High pressure can also impact the mechanism and severity of corrosion.

Materials constructed of stainless steel are susceptible to severe failures from corrosion brought on by high operating pressures in seawater reverse osmosis desalination systems, such as crevice corrosion. Operating at ambient temperature, however, can stop the corrosion caused by high operating temperatures. It is significant to remember that depending on where the plants were placed, the ambient temperature can change significantly. For instance, the ambient seawater temperature in the Middle East is often above 30 °C, which greatly increases the likelihood of crevice and pitting corrosion, unlike places where the saltwater is below 20 °C in temperature.30

3.3. pH

Corrosion rates can be influenced by the pH and alkalinity of desalinated water. Water becomes more corrosive and more acidic with low pH values. The pace of corrosion can be slowed down by the production of protective oxide layers on metal surfaces, which can be encouraged by higher pH levels.31

3.4. Dissolved Oxygen

The presence of dissolved oxygen in desalinated water can have a significant impact on corrosion rates. Oxygen acts as an oxidizing agent, promoting electrochemical reactions that accelerate the corrosion process. Higher levels of dissolved oxygen can lead to increased corrosion rates, especially in systems with elevated temperatures.

3.5. Flow Velocity

In desalinated water systems, flow velocity is a significant factor determining corrosion. Higher flow rates can speed up the mass transfer of corrosive species, which intensifies corrosion. Lower flow rates, however, may encourage localized corrosion by allowing corrosive chemicals to build up in stagnant places.

3.6. Chloride Concentration

Saltwater’s chloride has the power to dissolve the oxide film that protects a metal’s surface and combine with metal ions to create a complex. This process generates hydrogen ions during hydrolysis, raising the water’s acidity and accelerating local corrosion of the metal. High concentrations of chloride ions may quicken localized corrosion processes like pitting or crevice corrosion. Alkalinity levels and sulfate ions can also have an impact on corrosion rates. The source water, desalination procedure, and post-treatment techniques impact the water’s composition.32

3.7. Fouling and Scaling

Desalination system fouling and scaling can cause localized pockets of stagnant water and encourage the build-up of corrosive chemicals, which can lead to corrosion. Localized corrosion can be caused by biofouling, mineral scaling, and the deposition of organic and inorganic contaminants. According to a previous study, deoxygenated alkaline solutions can typically remove 60–99% of the chloride ions present in products, and they can reduce chloride ion levels to less than 1000 ppm in 87% of situations.33 While the effectiveness of the treatment in removing chloride ions is clearly demonstrated, it is more challenging to predict how this would affect the items’ longevity because the correlation between chloride ion content and corrosion rate has not been quantitatively established. In another work, Rimmer et al.34 investigated how chloride ions affected the rate of corrosion during desalination. The authors concluded that the biggest effect on lowering corrosion rates comes from removing the most soluble chlorine.

4. Types of Corrosion Inhibitors in Desalination Plants

Desalination plants also use corrosion inhibitors for corrosion monitoring and control. Operators can optimize inhibitor dosing, modify process parameters, and take remedial action to reduce corrosion and its related impacts by continuously monitoring the corrosion rates and employing corrosion inhibitors as necessary.

4.1. Inorganic Inhibitors

Corrosion inhibitors based on inorganic substances or metallic ions are known as inorganic inhibitors. These inhibitors create insoluble chemicals that form a protective coating on the metal surface. Processes for desalinating water at high temperatures frequently include inorganic inhibitors.35−37 Typically, an inorganic inhibitor exhibits either a cathodic or anodic protection.38,39

Inorganic inhibitors are also employed in desalination procedures to modify and regulate the pH of the water. The stability of the desalination system and the solubility of salts are both influenced by pH, a crucial parameter. Maintaining the proper pH level and avoiding scaling or corrosion problems brought on by extreme pH values can be accomplished by adding alkaline or acidic substances, such as sodium hydroxide (NaOH) or sulfuric acid (H2SO4).40

A study by Deyab et al.37 examined the effectiveness of different metal-phosphate in controlling corrosion of carbon steel in saline water. The authors concluded that copper phosphate has higher efficiency of 93.3% (298 K) compared by Cobalt-phosphate (75.3%) and Mn-phosphate (58.6%). In addition, the measurements confirm the stability of copper-phosphate protective with increasing the temperature to 338 K to give protection of 80.4%. The effect of different inorganic inhibitors (WO4–2, MoO4–2, and NO2–) on the pitting corrosion was investigated by Foad et al.41 Pit nucleation rates rise with rising halide ion concentrations and applied potentials, but they fall when inorganic inhibitor concentrations rise. The inhibitors’ ability to block diminish in the following order: WO4–2 > MoO4–2 > NO2–. Cerium was applied as an inorganic corrosion inhibitor for carbon steel. The results show excellent reducing behavior for the cathodic reaction.42−44 When the prevention of corrosion caused by Ce deposition alone is ineffective (for a variety of reasons, including the effect of current density, deposition time, and temperature on crystal size), additives like PEG can be applied.42

4.2. Organic Inhibitors

The benefit of organic inhibitors is that they can effectively prevent corrosion even at low concentrations. Under the challenging operating circumstances of desalination plants, they can provide increased stability and durability.45 Different organic inhibitors such as heterorganic, ionic liquids and surfactants are used as corrosion inhibitors. They are frequently used in various desalination procedures, such as electrodialysis, reverse osmosis, and multieffect distillation.

4.2.1. Heterorganic and Polymeric Inhibitors

Organic inhibitors adhere to metal surfaces and create a barrier or protective coating that keeps the metal from direct contact with the aggressive media.46,47 Typically, these inhibitors contain functional groups like amines, carboxylates, or phosphates that can unite with metal ions to create a complex.48,49 The protective coating slows down electrochemical processes and slows down corrosion. The newly identified pyrazolone derivatives recently showed promise as excellent inhibitors by Deyab et al.50 Adsorption that effectively slowed acid corrosion was made possible by the inhibitor’s contact with the steel surface using its nitrogen and oxygen atoms. Following the corrosion measurements, inhibition efficiencies between 84% and 91% were attained. Benzotriazole and its derivatives were considered highly efficient heterorganic inhibitors (i.e., possess different heteroatoms) in addition to the bielectron of the aromatic benzene ring.51,52 Different researchers confirm the excellent corrosion inhibition efficiency of benzotriazole in both acidic and saline media.53−55 In addition, other works describe pyrimidine molecules as excellent inhibitors causing enhancement to the corrosion inhibition in different environment and due to its biological properties pyrimidine is considered an eco-friendly inhibitor.56,57 The protein-based polymer may contain casein that has been studied as a corrosion inhibitor or gelatin hydrolysates.58 The author concluded that the addition of inhibitor in the range of 0.001 to 0.005 wt % to acid media (5% HCl or H2SO4) as the cleaning solvent demonstrated excellent corrosion in HCl but performed poorly in H2SO4.

4.2.2. Surfactants

The surfactant molecule contains amphiphilic moieties; these unique properties facilitate their application in different fields.59,60 There are different types of surfactants depending on the nature of the headgroup: anionic, cationic, zwitterion, and nonionic surfactants.61 Surfactants are adsorbed on the metal surface forming resistive layer that protect the metal from corrosion.62 The headgroup of the surfactant molecule adsorbed onto metal forming a sequential layer, which prevents the metal exposure to corrosive medium.63 The effectiveness of the adsorbed layer depends on the surfactant concentration and time of its contacting with the metal surface. The surfactants exhibit a wide range of properties, such as greater inhibitory effectiveness, low toxicity, ease of manufacture, and low cost.64 Deyab65 examined the effectiveness of cationic surfactants named benzethonium chlorides in controlling the corrosion of 316L SS in MSF desalination plants. The author evaluated the performance of the investigated surfactant and demonstrated its ability to reduce corrosion rates and minimize scale formation. The inhibition efficiency was found to be 92.3% and the inhibitor classified as mixed-type. Four quaternary ammonium cationic surfactants were evaluated as corrosion inhibitors for steel in acid solution.66 The results showed that the examined surfactant has good corrosion mitigation properties.

4.2.3. Ionic Liquid Inhibitors

Ionic liquids (ILs) are likely to get the attention of many researchers for their potential application as corrosion inhibitors in a variety of industries due to their low toxicity and outstanding efficacy.30,67 The ionic liquids’ alkyl chain length significantly affects the rate of corrosion. The performance of ILs’ ability to inhibit corrosion is improved by an increase in the metal surface coverage brought on by an increase in the alkyl chain lengths of ILs.68,69

Three new ILs based on benzimidazole derivatives were synthesized and studied for their potential usefulness in preventing corrosion in MSF desalination facilities’ steel components during acid exposure. They discovered that the corrosion MSF is significantly inhibited by these ionic solutions. The performance of ionic liquids is influenced by their concentrations and the temperature of the environment. Additionally, the authors stated that the primary mechanism of ILs is mixed-type.70 Another study concerns the economic impact of using triethylsulfonium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide as a corrosion resistive in thermal desalination units.71 The obtained results demonstrate that the tested ionic liquid was efficient, with the best corrosion inhibition values being 97.8% (120 ppm, 303 K). Additionally, the efficiency dropped to 88.2% as the temperature increased 343 K.

Tributyl(ethyl)phosphonium diethyl phosphate (Ph-IL) is an inhibitor of corrosion for the aluminum alloy AA5052 during the acid cleaning procedure in the MED desalination facility. Surprisingly, the addition of ionic liquid enhances AA5052’s resistance to corrosion, with an efficiency level reaching 93.0%.72 The anodic and cathodic sites can be covered by Ph-IL molecules through the adsorption of the ionic liquid (both the cationic and anionic components). Deyab and Mohsen synthesized ammonium-based ionic liquid and examined it is corrosion resistance for CuNi alloy in desalination plants.73 The electrochemical measurements declare that the ionic liquid inhibit the metal corrosion with an efficiency of 98.4%.

Benzyltributylammonium tetrachloroaluminate [BTBA]+[AlCl4]− is a novel ionic liquid that Kannan et al.74 developed and used in acid solution to shield carbon steel from corrosion. They claimed that at low concentrations, these ILs’ remarkable anticorrosion efficacy reached 97%.

4.3. Eco-friendly Inhibitors

Due to their abundance and low toxicity, the research community has recently shown a lot of interest in alternative biosourced corrosion inhibitors.75,56,23 The majority of these naturally occurring corrosion inhibitors are derived from plant and seaweed material.76,77 Hippocastanum seed extraction (AHS) has been used in desalination facilities as a sustainable and eco-friendly corrosion inhibitor to reduce the risk of copper alloy corrosion during the acid cleaning process.78 The AHS extract demonstrated a 96.1% inhibitory at 100 ppm. The findings demonstrate that AHS is a potent mixed-type corrosion inhibitor that works through a physical adsorption process, with the extract molecules adsorbing on the copper alloy surface in a nearly flat orientation to maximize surface coverage and contact. The effectiveness of Taraxacum ofcinale extract was examined as a green corrosion inhibitor in desalination plants in a different study.79 The authors concluded that in the presence of 400 mg/L of Taraxacum ofcinale extract causing increase in the efficiency to become more than 94%. Cornflower (Centaurea cyanus) extract (CFE) was examined by Heakal et al. as a corrosion inhibitor for carbon steel in saline water.80 The relationship between immersion time and weight loss rate showed that CFE not only maintains its ability to prevent corrosion in saline water, but also becomes more effective over extended immersion thanks to the complementary effects of the corrosion inhibitors that provide additional protection.

5. Environmental Considerations and Sustainable Inhibition

Desalination plants need corrosion protection; thus corrosion inhibitors are vital. However, it is also important to think about how corrosion inhibitors will affect the environment and support sustainable inhibition techniques. More information on the environmental factors relating to corrosion inhibitors is provided in this section, which also covers sustainable application methods.

Conducting thorough environmental impact evaluations is essential to guarantee the environmental sustainability of corrosion inhibitors. These analyses examine the possible dangers and harm that corrosion inhibitors could cause to the environment, including to ecosystems, water quality, and human health. They support the identification of potential environmental risks and guarantee adherence to environmental standards and legislation.

As an environmentally beneficial substitute for conventional inhibitors, the creation and application of green and sustainable inhibitors has received considerable attention. Green inhibitors are less harmful and have less of an impact on the environment because they are made from natural and renewable resources. They provide a more environmentally friendly method of desalination plant corrosion management. Table 1 provided a summary of some corrosion inhibitors’ effectiveness with regard to various catalysts that take sustainability into account.

Table 1. Type and Efficiency of Corrosion Inhibitors.

type of inhibitor inhibitors efficiency (%) references
ionic liquid 1-dodecyl-3-methylimidazolium iodide 96.8 (15)
inorganic Cu(HPO3) 93.3 (37)
organic inhibitor aromatic nitro compound 94.6 (45)
surfactants benzethonium chloride 92.3 (65)
surfactants hexa nonoionic surfactant 87.85 (66)
ionic liquid tributyl(ethyl)phosphonium diethyl phosphate 93 (72)
ionic liquid triethylsulfonium bis(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)imide 97.8 (71)
ionic liquid (diethyl (2-methoxyethyl)-methyl ammonium bis(fluorosulfonyl)imide) 98.4 (73)
eco-friendly Aesculus Hippocastanum seeds 96.1 (78)
eco-friendly taraxacum ofcinale extract 94 (79)
inorganic K2Cr2O7 97.31 (81)
eco-friendly N-acetylcysteine 87.6 (82)
eco-friendly curcuma and saffron 96 (83)
eco-friendly cystine 76.5 (84)
eco-friendly bee wax propolis extract 91.4 (85)
eco-friendly bladder wrack extract 94.2 (86)
organic inhibitor 8-hydroxyquinoline 82 (87)
organic inhibitor tetraphenylporphyrin 84 (88)
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6. Comparing the Corrosion Behavior of Desalination Systems and Petrochemical Industries

Because of differences in operating circumstances, water chemistry, and the types of corrosive chemicals involved, corrosion structures in desalination plants and other structures, particularly petrochemical industries, might vary. The following are a number of significant differences between these two systems’ corrosion structures:

  • a.

    Desalination technologies work with seawater or brackish water, which include high quantities of chloride ions, dissolving gases, and contaminants. Water with a significant amount of chloride can cause strong chloride-induced corrosion. Petrochemical industries, however, frequently handle several forms of corrosive fluids, such as acids, alkalis, hydrocarbons, and corrosive gases, depending on the individual operations. The composition and quantity of these corrosive fluids can vary greatly, resulting in a variety of corrosion processes.

  • b.

    High-temperature and high-pressure procedures are frequently used in the petrochemical industry, which can have a substantial impact on corrosion behavior. Temperature increases can hasten corrosion rates and enhance certain corrosion processes like as high-temperature oxidation or sulfidation. Although certain thermal desalination processes may require greater temperatures, desalination systems normally operate at lower temperatures and pressures. When opposed to elevated temperatures petrochemical operations, low operating temperatures lead to reduced corrosion rates.

  • c.

    To deal with the severe water chemistry, desalination units frequently utilize materials with excellent corrosion resistance, including stainless steel, titanium, or corrosion-resistant alloys. According to the specific process needs, the petrochemical industry may use a broader range of materials, such as carbon steel, stainless steel, different alloys, and nonmetallic materials. In both circumstances, material selection is crucial to ensure compatibility with the corrosive environment and to reduce corrosion hazards.

Many works89−91 have been published in the literature that emphasize the corrosion issue in the petrochemical industry. Shokri92 investigated the corrosion, sedimentation, and consequent choking for the air cooler tubes of the benzene drying sector in petrochemical plants. He revealed that the corrosion products on the inside surface of the tubes were iron oxides, which can indicate the presence of oxygen in the structure of the system. He also demonstrated that the feed composition and progressive accumulation of contaminants in the benzene drying section are major causes of the issue. According to Shokri and Karimi,93 increasing the water proportion in the Linear Alkylbenzene (LAB) Production Operations allows the precipitation of the acid phase from the hydrocarbon phase also increases the risk of system corrosion. The corrosion and perforation of the linear alkyl benzene manufacturing system are determined by the content of the liquid or gases in the line as well as the operational circumstances. The reverse return of KOH-contaminated water vapors from the relief gas scrubber to the overhead line could promote corrosion.94

7. Conclusions, Challenges, and Future Aspects

The corrosion inhibitor additives used for monitoring corrosion in desalination systems are discussed in this review. Even though corrosion inhibitors have been successful in reducing corrosion in desalination facilities, there are still issues to resolve and potential future directions to investigate for better corrosion control. The main obstacles and probable future directions in the field of corrosion inhibition in desalination are highlighted:

  • For the long-term protection and durability, future research should concentrate on designing corrosion inhibitors specifically intended for them.

  • To ensure long-term corrosion protection, developing inhibitors with improved stability and longer inhibitory efficacy.

  • The environmental sustainability of corrosion inhibition in desalination facilities can be further increased by using environmentally friendly inhibitor delivery technologies, such as controlled-release mechanisms.

Acknowledgments

The Deanship of Scientific study at Northern Border University, Arar, Saudi Arabia, is thanked by the authors for financing this study work under the reference “NBU-FFR-2023-0141”.

The authors declare no competing financial interest.

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