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. 2023 Oct 30;12(6):1095–1104. doi: 10.1093/toxres/tfad100

Removal of nafcillin from aqueous solution with green synthesis iron oxide nanoparticles

Çiğdem Öter 1,✉
PMCID: PMC10734607  PMID: 38145101

Abstract

In this study, iron oxide nanoparticles were synthesized from Solanum nigrum L. extract and used to remove nafcillin, which exhibits toxic properties in aqueous solutions. To understand the adsorption behavior of naphcillin on the nanoadsorbent, the optimum conditions, kinetics and isotherm of adsorption were studied in detail. It was found that the adsorption process was consistent with the pseudo-second order kinetic model and Langmuir’s isothermal model. The FeONPs adsorbent achieved an adsorption capacity of 116.3 mg/g for nafcillin. It was also found that FeONPs retained ~90% of its adsorption capacity after five adsorption-desorption cycles. Apart from the fact that the nanoparticles synthesized in the study are composed of natural ingredients, S. nigrum L. which causes problems in plant cultivation, serves a useful purpose by being used in this method. The results show that this new nanoadsorbent provides an alternative option for the removal of pharmaceuticals and various pollutants in wastewater.

Keywords: adsorption, Fe3O4 nanoparticles, green synthesis, nafcillin, pollutants

Graphical Abstract

Graphical Abstract.

Graphical Abstract

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Introduction

Medical products, plastics, cosmetics, textiles, pesticides, many chemical products such as liquid crystals make our lives easier. However, the waste generated both during production and after use is a problem.1,2 Drugs are chemical agents used to prevent, diagnose, and treat diseases that occur or may occur in humans and animals.3 The most common pharmaceuticals used in the environment include analgesics, anti-inflammatories, antibiotics, beta-lactams, and cholesterol-lowering drugs, as well as psychotropic drugs and anticancer drugs. Pharmaceutical agents can enter wastewater with human feces as well as hospital wastewater. A large proportion of active pharmaceutical ingredients cannot be removed from wastewater treatment plants and enter water bodies and then groundwater. β-Lactams are among the antibiotics commonly detected in hospital wastewater and livestock, including nafcillin (NAF). NAF belongs to the penicillin family and has broad-spectrum and intrinsic antibacterial activity.4,5 The removal of pharmaceutical substances from wastewater is very important.

In recent years, new technologies have been developed to improve the application and efficiency of traditional environmental treatments. The concept of nanomaterials has received much research attention due to their potential applications in various fields of science and technology. Their large surface area, cost efficiency, non-toxicity, high conductivity, catalytic activity and environmental friendliness have made them very important. Nowadays, the synthesis of nanoparticles is done by various physical, chemical and biological methods, and they contain harmful and toxic chemicals that pollute the environment. Therefore, nanoparticle biosynthesis is considered as a green technology to improve the environment.

The green synthesis of nanoparticles does not contain harmful chemicals, follows green principles, and contributes to the restoration of a green environment.6,7 The use of chemicals as stabilizers in the synthesis of nanoparticles could be costly and toxic to the environment.8,9 The development of nontoxic nanoparticles is currently a necessity for environmental remediation. Synthesis of green nanoparticles has recently gained importance due to its many advantages such as easy scaling for large scale synthesis, low cost, production of safe, clean and non-toxic by-products. It has been shown that the production of these nanoparticles is more efficient and reliable when using green synthesis methods that utilize abundant resources such as plant parts and microorganisms.10 Among metal oxide nanoparticles, magnetite (Fe3O4) nanoparticles with unique properties have attracted the attention of researchers due to their application in various fields such as wastewater treatment,11 electrical industry,12 biomedical engineering,13 and biotechnology.14 In addition, Fe3O4 nanoparticles are used as a key material for magnetic ferrofluid and new applications.15,16 However, the application of Fe3O4 nanoparticles and their properties depend on various parameters influenced by particle size, morphology, porosity, surface functionalization, and synthesis method. Fe3O4 nanoparticles can be prepared by techniques such as thermal decomposition, coprecipitation and green synthesis.8,17 Green synthesis of Fe3O4 nanoparticles has attracted considerable attention due to its environmentally friendly nature, ability to remove pollutants, biocompatibility, and numerous medical applications.18,19 Various biological resources (e.g. fungi, bacteria, algae, and plant extracts) have been used for the green synthesis of metal oxide and metal nanoparticles. Among these biological resources, the use of plant extracts is relatively simple compared to the production of bacterial or fungal culture media on a large scale.20Solanum nigrum L. (foxberry), of the nightshade family (Solanaceae), is a widespread weed commonly found in fallow fields and cereal fields in temperate, subtropical, and tropical climates. Phytochemical studies of S. nigrum revealed the existence of saponins,21,22 phenolics,23 and amide alkaloids24 that may act as antiproliferative, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, and neuroprotective agents. The green synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles is environmentally friendly compared to the conventional chemical method due to the nature of the synthesis. The nanoparticles can be safely used in a variety of applications due to the highly reactive oxygen species, such as photocatalyst for dye degradation, adsorbent for wastewater treatment, and in pharmaceuticals as antioxidant and antifungal agents.25,26

In this study, iron oxide nanoparticles were synthesized using S. nigrum L. extract. These green synthesized iron oxide nanoparticles were used for the removal of the widely used antibiotic nafcillin from aqueous solutions.

Material and method

Chemicals and reagents

Nafcillin sodium monohydrate (NAF), FeCl3.6H2O, FeCl2.4H2O, were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich (Steinheim, Germany). All other reagents used were of AR grade. Distilled water was used in this work.

The absorption spectra of the nafcillin in the ultraviolet visible range (UV-vis) were recorded using an Optizen- POP model spectrometer. The morphology of nanoparticles were observed using SEM (SEM, Zeiss Sigma 300 FESEM). TGA analyses were determined using Setaram Labsys Evo Gravimetric Analyzer 1,600 model instrument. FTIR measurements were performed using a Bio-Rad Win- IR model FTIR spectrometer. Surface area of the nanomaterial is analyzed by using a gas adsorption technique (Micromeritics Tri Star II 3200). Nitrogen gas was used as an adsorbent in 77 K (−196 °C) liquid nitrogen environment.

Preparation of S. nigrum L. extract

Ripe fruits of S. nigrum L. were collected from garden edges in Van, Turkey. After thorough washing, the collected fruits were sliced and dried in the shade for two weeks. The fine powder obtained after grinding was stored at room temperature in an airtight container for later use. For the preparation of the extract, 5 g of S. nigrum L. powder was boiled with 100 mL of double distilled water for about 1 h and then filtered and used as reducing agent for the synthesis of iron oxide nanoparticles (FeONPs).

Synthesis of iron oxide (Fe3O4) nanoparticles

The co-precipitation method was used to prepare FeONPs. To obtain a solution with a concentration of 0.1 M, 5.35 g FeCl3.6H2O and 8.10 g FeCl2.4H2O were dissolved separately in the presence of S. nigrum L. extract, which was used as a reducing agent, to obtain a 100 mL solution. The solution, which was purged with nitrogen gas for 5 min, was heated to 80 °C. Finally, a 25% NH4OH solution was dropped into this mixture until the final pH was above 9 for at least 20 min and a black precipitate was obtained.27 The precipitate formed was collected with a magnet and, after washing several times with distilled water, dried in an oven at 50 °C for 24 h.

Batch adsorption studies

To obtain a working and standard solution of nafcillin at different concentrations, a 250 mg/L stock solution of nafcillin was prepared. Experiments were performed at different time periods (5–180 min), different pH values (4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10), different nafcillin concentrations (5–250 mg/L range), and different adsorbent amounts (5–125 mg). Subsequently, the nafcillin solutions were contacted with FeONPs and shaken on a magnetic shaker at 500 rpm for the indicated times. At the end of the experiment, the adsorbent was separated with a magnetic piece and the remaining nafcillin concentration in the solution was determined using a UV spectrophotometer at 255 nm. The adsorbed nafcillin amount qe (mg/g) and the percentage of adsorption (%) at equilibrium were calculated as follows28:

graphic file with name DmEquation1.gif (1)
graphic file with name DmEquation2.gif (2)

where, the initial and equilibrium nafcillin concentration (mg/L), are symbolized by Co and Ce respectively, and the adsorbent amount (mg) is w.

Results and discussion

Characterization of FeONPs

FTIR spectrum analysis was performed to compare the green synthesized Fe3O4 nanoparticles before and after adsorption of nafcillin (Fig. 1). For the chemically synthesized particles, the strong band at about 571 cm−1 could correspond to the Fe-O vibrational mode of Fe3O4, which is specifically attributed to ferrites. Any band between 400 and 600 cm−1 can be generally associated with the stress vibration modes of magnetite.29 The weak density peak around 1,629 cm−1 can be attributed to the presence of hydroxyl groups and can be attributed to the OH bending of the solvent with the hydroxyl group of deionized water30 or NaOH. Between these bands, the peaks at 571 and 1,629 cm−1 resemble chemically synthesized FeO nanoparticles associated with Fe-O and OH bending, respectively. Absorption peaks at 707–985 cm−1 indicate the presence of aromatic C-H of aromatic compounds.31 The peak at 1,040 and 1,137 cm−1 corresponds to the C–O stretching band. The band at 1,734 cm−1 corresponds to the C = O stretching vibration.32 The band at 2,945 cm−1 corresponds to the C–H stretching vibrations of –CH2. In green Fe3O4 nanoparticles synthesized similarly to myrtle extract, a relatively broad band around 3,450 cm−1 was observed, which was attributed to the O-H stretching vibration.33 When the FTIR spectrum of the nanoparticles is examined after nafcillin adsorption, the differences observed in some of the peaks indicate that the adsorption process was successfully carried out.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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FTIR spectra of FeONPs and FeONPS-NAF.

N2 adsorption/desorption isotherms at liquid nitrogen temperature were used to determine the sensitive surface area (Brunauer-Emmett Teller, BET), pore size, and pore volume of the nanoadsorbent, and Fig. 2 shows the results of BET analysis. The synthesized iron oxide nanoparticles show the TYPE IV adsorption-desorption isotherm. The Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) pore volume, average pore width and surface area of the prepared nanoparticles were calculated to be 0.192 cm3/g, 108.4 Å (~10.8 nm) and 70.77 m2/g, respectively. From the adsorption-desorption isotherm, about 125 cm3/g of nitrogen is adsorbed at a maximum relative pressure of 1 (P/P0).34 These results show that the FeONPs sample is a strong adsorbent due to its large surface area and very small particle size.35

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

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Nitrogen adsorption (BET) isotherms of the FeONPs nanoparticles and BHJ plot (inset figure).

Figure 3 shows the thermogravimetric (TGA) analysis of iron oxide nanoparticles. According to the TGA curve of iron oxide, decomposition by heat treatment occurs in three stages. First, a small mass loss is observed at temperatures below 100 °C, which is probably due to the evaporation of moisture adsorbed in the sample. Two other larger mass losses are observed starting at about 200 °C. These mass losses are due to decomposition of organic species from the sample, and no significant mass loss is observed above 700 °C. At about 1,050 °C, only 23% mass loss was observed in the sample. This indicates the high thermal stability of the iron oxide nanoparticles.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

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TGA spectra of FeONPs.

SEM was used to obtain information about the surface morphology and particle size of the prepared nanoadsorbent, as shown in Fig. 4. The microscopic images showed the formation of spherical nanoparticles of different size and distribution. The average particle size of the iron oxide nanoparticles is about 32.5 nm. The partial agglomeration of the particles observed in the surface morphology is due to the electrostatic interaction between the nanoparticle layers.

Fig. 4.

Fig. 4

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The SEM images of FeONPs, a) 150,00 X, b) 300,00 X.

Adsorption experiments

Effect of contact time

The effect of contact time has a significant influence on the adsorption process. The contact time experiments were optimized for 50 mg/L nafcillin in the range of 5–180 min. Examination of the results (Fig. 5a) shows that the adsorption rate of nafcillin increases until it reaches the maximum equilibrium adsorption capacity (45 min). The reason for the rapid adsorption of the nafcillin molecule is the presence of a large number of vacancies on the nanoadsorbent surface, which fill rapidly when exposed to the nafcillin molecules.36 The adsorption capacity decreases with time. For this reason, the optimum contact time was set at 45 min and was also used in other parameter studies.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 5

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Optimization of a) contact time, b) pH, c) initial nafcillin concentration, d) temperature.

Effect of pH

The pH is a fundamental parameter for the adsorption of nafcillin and allows the determination of the maximum efficiency in adsorption systems. Experiments were performed at a nafcillin concentration of 50 mg/L, 45 min, and 25 °C in different pH ranges (4.0–10.0). 1 M HNO3 and 1 M NaOH solutions were used for pH adjustments. The nafcillin removal efficiency increases with the change of pH from 4 to 6. At pH 6.0, the adsorption capacity of nafcillin decreases again in the pH range of 7.0–10.0, as shown in Fig. 5b. The adsorption proceeds as a function of the acid-base specification of the nanoadsorbent and antibiotic. As the basicity of the medium increases, the quaternary ammonium groups are protonated and the number of —COO− groups leaving the naphcillin increases; they are strongly influenced by the positive charges (N(CH3)3) present on the nanoadsorbent. However, a significant decrease in adsorption efficiency was observed at a pH where OH− negative charges predominate and compete with and replace the naphcillin molecules, and the adsorption efficiency in the systems decreases.37 The optimum pH was determined to be 6.0 and further studies were conducted at this pH.

Effect of adsorbent amount

The effect of the amount of nanoadsorbent was studied in the range of 5 to 125 mg. According to the results, it was found that the adsorption capacity of nafcillin increased with the increase of the amount of nanoadsorbent from 5 mg to 15 mg, and there was no significant change with the increase of the amount of nanoadsorbent. The initial increase observed was due to the larger surface area and more active sites provided by the increased amount of nanoadsorbent. For this reason, 15 mg was determined to be the optimal nanoadsorbent dose.

Effect of initial concentration

The efficiency of the nanoadsorbent in adsorbing nafcillin is highly dependent on the initial nafcillin concentration. The initial nafcillin concentration study was conducted between 5–250 mg/L (45 min, pH: 6.0, 25 °C) (Fig. 5). As a result, it was found that the antibiotic removal efficiency was >92% when the nafcillin concentration reached 25 mg/L. Thereafter, a decrease was observed, reaching about 65% of the nafcillin removal efficiency at 250 mg/L. This decrease in removal efficiency observed at higher initial concentrations indicates saturation of the available active sites of the nanoadsorbent. As more nafcillin molecules are available to occupy the empty sites on the surface of the nanoadsorbent, the adsorption capacity increases with increasing initial concentration. Therefore, the optimal initial nafcillin concentration was set at 25 mg/L.

Effect of temperature

To investigate the effect of temperature on the adsorption of naphcillin on FeONPs, experiments were performed in the range 15–55 °C. According to the results shown in Fig. 5d, the adsorption capacity of nafcillin increased with the increase of temperature from 15 °C to 55 °C. This increase in adsorption efficiency with temperature indicates an endothermic nature of the adsorption process.38 The temperature of 55 °C corresponds to an optimal value for the adsorption capacity.

Adsorption kinetics

To investigate the adsorption mechanism of nafcillin on FeONPs, the adsorption kinetics were studied. The kinetic studies were performed using four models, namely pseudo-first-order, pseudo-second-order, intra-particle diffusion model and fractional force kinetics model.39–42 (Eqs. 3–6, respectively).

graphic file with name DmEquation3.gif (3)
graphic file with name DmEquation4.gif (4)
graphic file with name DmEquation5.gif (5)
graphic file with name DmEquation6.gif (6)

Where qe is the equilibrium adsorption capacity (mg/g); k1 is the pseudo-first-order kinetic constant (1/min); k2 is the pseudo second-order kinetic constant (g/mg.min). C is the intercept of the Intraparticle diffusion model (Weber-Morris model); Kp is the diffusion rate constant (mg/g.min1/2). The terms v (1/min) and K (mg/g) are constants given by the slope and intercept of the plot between log qt and log t, respectively. The value of v is less than one if the kinetic data fit the power function model well.

Based on the data, kinetic studies were performed to investigate the effect of contact time on the adsorption capacity of nafcillin. From the results, the values of the correlation coefficient R2 for the pseudo-second-order graphs were >0.99 (Fig. 6b), but the same is true for the pseudo-first-order, intraparticle diffusion, and fractional power kinetic models. As can be seen in Table 1, the maximum adsorption capacity (qe = 30.72 mg/g) calculated with the pseudo-second-order model agrees well with the experimental value (qexp = 29.33 mg/g). In the intraparticle diffusion model, the qt versus t½ plot was very linear, indicating that nafcillin adsorption was affected by several processes (Fig. 6c). Since the value of v is positive and less than 1 in the fractional power model, this model must explain the mechanism. However, the low value of the correlation coefficient (R2) of this model is not close to 1 experimentally, and this determined value shows that the model is also not applicable (Fig. 6d). For this reason, the pseudo-second order model was found to be more compatible with the adsorption process than other models. In some studies using iron oxide nanoparticles from green synthesis, adsorption was reported to be suitable for the pseudo-second order kinetic model.43,44

Fig. 6.

Fig. 6

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Adsorption kinetics, a) pseudo first order model b) pseudo second order model, c) Intraparticle diffusion model, and d) fractional power kinetic model.

Table 1.

Kinetic parameters of nafcillin adsorption on FeONPs.

Models Parameters FeONPs
Pseudo-first order q𝑒 (mg/g) 19.34
k1 (1min) 0.11
R2 0.9665
qexp (mg/g) 29.33
Pseudo-second order q𝑒 (mg/g) 30.72
k2 (g/mg.min) 0.05
R2 0.9922
qexp (mg/g) 29.33
Intra-particle diffusion Kp (mg/g.min1/2) 4.16
C (mg/g) 7.86
R2 0.8652
Fractional power K (mg/g) 8.88
ν (1/min) 0.37
R2 0.9373
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Adsorption isotherms

The effect of initial concentration on the adsorption of nafcillin to FeONPs was studied in a concentration range of 5–250 mg/L (Fig. 5c). The adsorption isotherms were examined using the data from this study. The Langmuir, Freundlich, Elovich, and Dubinin-Radushkevich (D-R) models are the main sorption isotherms used to characterize adsorption equivalence.45–48 A detailed explanation of each isotherm model is provided below (Eqs. 7–13):

graphic file with name DmEquation7.gif (7)
graphic file with name DmEquation8.gif (8)
graphic file with name DmEquation9.gif (9)
graphic file with name DmEquation10.gif (10)
graphic file with name DmEquation11.gif (11)
graphic file with name DmEquation12.gif (12)
graphic file with name DmEquation13.gif (13)

Where Ce (mg/L) and qe (mg/g) are the concentration and sorption capacity, respectively, at equilibrium. qmax (mg/g) is the maximum adsorption capacity and b is the Langmuir constant. The separation factor (RL), used to estimate the interest between adsorbate and adsorbent, is the important Langmuir equilibrium parameter. Kf and n are the Freundlich constants, which relate to the capacity and intensity of adsorption, respectively. Ke is the Elovich constant and represents the initial adsorption rate. The qm term represents the maximum Elovich adsorption capacity. qm is the theoretical adsorption capacity (D-R), ε is the Polanyi potential, β is the activity coefficient, which refers to the average adsorption energy (mol2/J2), E is the average adsorption energy (J/mol).

The isotherm parameters of the Langmuir, Freundlich, Elovich, and Dubinin-Radushkevich models are listed in Table 2. The obtained results show that the experimentally obtained data are in good agreement with the Langmuir model compared to the other models. As shown in Table 2, the correlation coefficient (R2) for the Langmuir isotherm is >0.99, which is very close to 1. The qmax adsorption capacity was determined to be 116.3 mg/g. The calculated RL value is less than 1, confirming the positive adsorption of nafcillin on FeONPs. The n value of 1.03 in Freundlich isotherm also shows that the adsorption is positive.49 The Elovich and Freundlich models representing multilayer adsorption with low correlation coefficient (R2) of 0.8967 and 0.9106, respectively, show that these two models are not compatible with the adsorption of nafcillin on FeONPs. E < 8 (j/mol) value in Dubinin-Radushkevich model; shows that physical forces are effective in adsorption. These statements suggest that nafcillin adsorption is single-layered, as it best fits the Langmuir model. In various studies using iron oxide nanoparticles as adsorbents, it was found that the adsorption process was suitable for Langmiur’s isothermal model.50–52

Table 2.

Isotherm parameters of nafcillin adsorption on FeONPs.

Models Parameters FeONPs
Langmuir qmax (mg/g) 116.3
b (L/mg) 0.06
RL 0.4
R2 0.994
Freundlich 𝐾𝑓 [(mg/g)(L/mg)1/n)] 2.55
n 1.03
R2 0.9106
Elovich qm (mg/g) 75.16
𝐾e 0.99
R2 0.8967
Dubinin-Radushkevich qm (mg/g) 72.92
β (mol2/J2) 3.19
E (J/mol) 0.4
R2 0.8621
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Desorption mechanism

Desorption of naphcillin from FeONPS was performed using different eluents such as water, ethanol, acetone, CH3COOH, HCl, and a mixture of HCl and ethanol (Fig. 7). HCl as the eluent showed the highest desorption efficiency (>%92). High desorption efficiency was subsequently observed in the mixture of HCl and ethanol (2:1, v/v). It appears that a strong acid is required to break the chemical bonds during naphcillin desorption. This means that naphcillin is released by the acid–base effect and the protonation of the amino group in the basic medium, together with excess Cl ions, completely removes the naphcillin molecules from the nanoadsorbent.

Fig. 7.

Fig. 7

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Desorption efficiency of different eluents for the desorption of nafcillin from FeONPs.

Regeneration of nanoadsorbent

The regeneration ability is very important for evaluating the application performance of the nanoadsorbent. To investigate the reuse of the nanoadsorbent, several consecutive adsorption-desorption cycles were performed with 0.1 mol/L HCl elution. As shown in Fig. 8, after five adsorption-desorption cycles, a recovery of >90% was observed, and it was clear that the nanoadsorbent retained its adsorption capacity thanks to the regeneration process. This indicates that FeONPs have potential reusability and good stability.

Fig. 8.

Fig. 8

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Stability of FeONPs with respect to reusable cycles.

Conclusion

This work describes the rapid and highly efficient elimination of iron oxide nanoparticles from green synthesis, antibiotic nafcillin from aqueous solutions. In the study, the optimization conditions for the nanoadsorbent were determined. In order to understand the adsorption behavior of naphcillin on FeONPs, kinetic studies were performed using the pseudo-first-order, second-order, intraparticle diffusion and fractional power model. The results showed that the adsorption process was consistent with the pseudo-second-order kinetic model (R2>0.99). Isothermal studies were performed using different isothermal models such as Langmuir, Freundlich, Elovich and Dubinin-Radushkevich. The results showed that adsorption is a monolayer, since both the correlation coefficient (R2>0.99) and the calculated adsorption capacity values (116.3 mg/g) support the Langmuir model. It can be said that both the results of the second-order kinetic pseudo-model and the isothermal Langmuir model show single-layer adsorption, that is, they correlate well with each other. A desorption study was also performed to evaluate the regeneration ability of the nanoadsorbent. The maximum desorption was achieved with HCl, and a recovery of ~90% was observed after five adsorption–desorption cycles. These results indicate that green synthesis iron oxide nanoparticles can be used as an environmentally friendly adsorbent with high performance, reusability and good stability for pollution control.

Funding

This study was supported by Van Yuzuncu Yil University Scientific Research Projects (Project No. FHD-2023-10662).

 

Conflict of interest statement: None declared.

Data availability

All data are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

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