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. 2023 Oct 4;33(1):23–31. doi: 10.1007/s10068-023-01429-4

Ambivalence towards pork belly: exploring its significance and contradictions from the perspectives of the food industry and nutritional science

Sumin Kang 1,#, Gyoungok Gang 2,#, Gwang-woong Go 1,✉
PMCID: PMC10767089  PMID: 38186625

Abstract

Pork is the most consumed meat in South Korea, and pork belly is the preferred cut. However, pork production cannot meet the demand, leading to a heavy reliance on imports, particularly for pork bellies. In contrast, low-fat cuts face oversupply problems owing to low demand and export challenges. Pork belly fat content varies with breed, sex, growth rate, and fatty acid composition. Western countries favor higher fat saturation for processed products, whereas South Koreans prefer grilled or roasted bellies. Excessive consumption of high-fat pork cuts like pork belly, which is rich in saturated fatty acids, can increase the risk of severe diseases, highlighting the importance of reducing saturated fat intake and increasing the consumption of monounsaturated fatty acids and polyunsaturated fatty acids to mitigate these risks. The pork industry and public health sector should diversify production, promote leaner pork, and raise awareness about the implications of excessive pork consumption.

Keywords: Cardiovascular disease, Demand and supply imbalance, Health implication, High-fat cut, Market preference, Pork belly

Introduction

Pork is popular worldwide, with pork belly being the most favored cut in South Korea owing to its rich taste and high-fat content (Fig. 1) (Choe et al., 2015; USDA, 2023). Although South Korea is a leading pork consumer, its production falls short of demand and the country relies heavily on imports, particularly for pork belly (Oh and See, 2012). However, low-fat cuts, such as loin, tenderloin, picnic shoulder, and ham, face surplus inventory problems due to limited consumer preference and export difficulties (Vonada et al., 2000). Recently, bilateral free trade agreements have led to a growing global market for pork, with South Korea being one of the countries in which pork consumption has been on the rise (Oh and Whitley, 2011). Despite this increase in demand, domestic pork production in South Korea needs to catch up (Kim et al., 2018). In addition, excessive consumption of this high-fat cut may pose health risks such as an increased risk of cardiovascular disease and metabolic syndrome (Choe et al., 2015). This article provides a comprehensive review of the consumption and production of pork bellies in South Korea. We also discuss the unique characteristics of pork belly and the potential harm to health associated with excessive consumption of high-fat cuts.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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Meat consumption in the world. Data from report of U.S. Department of Agriculture Foreign Agricultural Service (2023)

The preference for pork belly in South Korea: a market analysis of demand and supply imbalances

Pork consumption is a popular and important aspect of South Korean dining; South Korea is the ninth largest consumer of pork in the world and the fourth largest in Asia (USDA, 2023), with pork belly being the most preferred cut (Choe et al., 2015). This preference for high-fat cuts, such as pork belly, is unique to South Korean consumers, who consume relatively fewer low-fat cuts, such as loin, tenderloin, and ham (Oh and See, 2012). This trend contrasts with American consumers, who prefer loin, Boston butt, and rib; Japanese consumers, who prefer tenderloin, loin, Boston butt, and ham; and Chinese consumers who favor pork ribs and loin (McLean et al., 2017; Oh and See, 2012).

South Korea has experienced a steady increase in meat consumption (Fig. 2A), with pork (27.6 kg per capita, total 1466 kt) being the most consumed, accounting for almost half of the total meat consumption (56.1 kg per capita, total 2945 kt) in 2021 (Fig. 2B and C) (KMTA, 2023). Surprisingly, pork consumption does not necessarily correspond to pork price. Despite an increase in wholesale pork prices from 2012 to 2022 (Fig. 2D), pork consumption increased slightly, representing a constant trend despite a sharp price increase from 2013 to 2015 (KMTA, 2023). Additionally, South Korea's inventory rate of pork belly is typically lower than that of other pork parts, such as loin, picnic shoulder, and ham, indicating a higher demand for pork belly than for other cuts (Oh and See, 2012; Vonada et al., 2000). This demand has resulted in significant imports from other countries due to an imbalance in the supply and demand of pork belly (Oh and See, 2012). These findings highlight South Korean consumers’ distinct preferences for pork belly over other parts. High pork belly consumption suggests that its unique flavor and texture are particularly desirable for South Koreans.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

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Meat consumption in South Korea from 2012 to 2021. (A) Total meat consumption, (B) per capita meat consumption, (C) meat consumption percentage, (D) wholesale meat

Despite the high demand for high-fat cuts, such as pork belly in South Korea, these cuts yield fewer meat portions: pork belly (15.7%) and Boston butt (5.6%), the preferred cuts in South Korea, comprise only approximately 21.3% of pork carcasses (Fig. 3) (Pringle and Williams, 2001; RDA, 2023). In contrast, low-fat cuts that are less preferred by South Korean consumers, such as ham, picnic shoulders, and loins, comprise a higher proportion of pork carcasses (approximately 42.8%) (Kim et al., 2021; Pringle and Williams, 2001). This imbalance in the supply and demand of pork belly is due to the excessive preference for pork belly in South Korea, despite not being a low-yield cut. Since 2000, foot-and-mouth disease outbreaks have negatively affected the pork industry in South Korea, resulting in decreased production efficiency and small farming operations (Yoon et al., 2018). This has caused an overall decrease in pork production efficiency, leading to an increase in the price of pork bellies (Kim and Im, 2020; Yoon et al., 2018). The global supply of pork, especially belly cut, is much higher than its demand; therefore, South Korea heavily depends on imports from other countries to meet the high domestic demand for pork belly (Wever et al., 2010). Pork belly accounts for approximately 50% of all imported pork (Fig. 4) (KMTA, 2023), and the domestic supply of pork in South Korea has decreased from 92.8% in 2003 to 73.2% in 2022 (KREI, 2023). Although consumers in South Korea consider pork origin important, the severe imbalance in the pork market has made the import of pork belly inevitable (Choe et al., 2015).

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

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Average yield (%) of primal cuts from a pork carcass. Data from Rural Development Administration (2021)

Fig. 4.

Fig. 4

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Changes in importation of pork in South Korea from 2012 to 2022. Data from Korea Meat Trade Association

Influence of breed, sex, growth rate, and fatty acid composition on fat content and marketability

Pork belly accounts for approximately 12% of chilled pig carcasses (Lebret and Čandek-Potokar, 2022; Zhang et al., 2019). However, it accounts for approximately 15–17% of the total carcass value, making it an economically crucial pig part (Fig. 3) (Arkfeld et al., 2017). Among the various primary cuts, pork belly is the most fatty. Excessive fat content is preferred only by certain consumers (Hoa et al., 2019; Kouba and Sellier, 2011). Furthermore, a high fat content is a risk factor for the pathophysiology of metabolic syndromes and chronic diseases (Murphy et al., 2012; Stettler et al., 2013). Previous research has shown that pork belly contains a high fat content of approximately 40–50%, regardless of genetic background, diet, sex, slaughter weight, and sampling location (Choe et al., 2015). All pig breeds available in South Korea contain over 30% fat in their pork belly cuts (Ko et al., 2013). Therefore, demand for leaner pork cuts has been increasing in many countries for several years, reducing pork belly fat content by almost 29% over the past 40 years (Chernukha et al., 2023; Fernandez et al., 1999). The critical characteristics of the pork belly are related to its fat content and fatty acid composition (Hoa et al., 2019).

There are significant differences in the fat content of pork bellies across various pig breeds (Chernukha et al., 2023; Hoa et al., 2019; Lee and Kim, 2023). The traditional pig breeds Berkshire and Tamworth have a higher fat content, thicker back fat, and less lean meat than modern breeds, such as Duroc and Large White (Park et al., 2017; Wilkinson et al., 2013). Moreover, belly cut from Berkshire pigs has a significantly higher fat content (Subramaniyan et al., 2016). Thinner back fat is typically correlated with lower fat content in pork belly (Willson et al., 2020). Genetic selection and crossbreeding have improved growth rate and carcass composition, resulting in lower fat content and higher lean content (Lozada-Soto et al., 2022). Leaner pork production breeds, such as Landrace, Large White, Pietrain, and Hampshire, have superior carcass composition, lower fat content, and higher lean content than traditional breeds, such as Tamworth, Saddleback, and Gloucester Old Spot (Dikeman and Devine, 2014; Subramaniyan et al., 2016). In addition to breed, factors such as sex, growth rate, and slaughter weight influence the fat content of pork bellies (Correa et al., 2006; Newcom et al., 2002). Barrows have a higher belly yield, thicker belly and back fat, and higher total fat content in their carcasses than gilts (Fredeen, 1980; Muhlisin et al., 2014). Pigs with a fast growth rate and heavier slaughter weight produce more belly portions and have higher fat content in belly cuts than those with a slow growth rate and lighter slaughter weight (Correa et al., 2008; Oh et al., 2022).

Various factors influence fat deposition in pork belly, including modifications in the fatty acid composition (Burnett et al., 2020; Dugan et al., 2015). Studies have indicated that barrows tend to have higher fat deposition in their bellies than do gilts and boars (Ko et al., 2023; Schumacher et al., 2022). A higher degree of fat saturation is generally associated with greater fat deposition (Wood et al., 1985). Therefore, efforts to increase the lean carcass content can reduce fat deposition and increase fat unsaturation, resulting in a thinner and softer belly (Correa et al., 2008; Gaffield et al., 2022). The belly fat of gilts and slow-growing pigs contains a lower proportion of saturated fatty acids (SFAs), such as palmitic acid (C16:0) and stearic acid (C18:0), and a higher proportion of linoleic acid (C18:2n-6) and total polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs). These traits result in belly cuts from gilts and slow-growing pigs with higher PUFA/SFA and n-6/n-3 ratios (Correa et al., 2008).

Pork belly, or bacon, is perceived differently in Western countries than in South Korea because of varying favored fatty acid profiles, which aim for different marketabilities (Huang et al., 2010). In Western countries, pork belly is primarily processed into bacon, which is a cured and processed form of belly, whereas in South Korea, consumers prefer grilled or roasted belly (Nam et al., 2010). This difference has led producers in each region to establish distinct production strategies, with Western consumers preferring higher saturation of pork belly. During pork processing, a leaner belly with lower fat saturation is associated with handling, processing, and slicing difficulties; reduced bacon yield; and unattractive bacteria (Trusell et al., 2011). The firmness of belly fat is positively correlated with the proportions of palmitic acid and stearic acid, and negatively correlated with PUFAs (Eggert et al., 2001; Trusell et al., 2011).

Moreover, it has been found that products high in unsaturated fats are more susceptible to rancidity during storage, which ultimately reduces their shelf-life (Lee et al., 2018; Li et al., 2013; Lim et al., 2014). Increasing the unsaturation of pork bellies is undesirable in Western countries due to these features. However, reducing fat content and increasing the degree of unsaturation in pork bellies does not affect marketability in South Korea (Vonada et al., 2001). Therefore, producers have established different strategies to meet market preferences in each region. For example, the thick belly cut has the highest processing yield through smoking and cooking processes, whereas bacon from the thin belly has the lowest slicing yield and lacks crispiness (Lowell et al., 2019). By understanding these differences in perception and production strategies, producers can optimize their products to meet the market demand and consumer preferences in each region.

The physiological value of nutritional composition of pork meat

Pork meat is a rich source of high-quality proteins and micronutrients including fat-soluble vitamins and minerals (Daniel et al., 2011). Pork consumption is an effective means of reducing malnutrition and increasing food security, particularly in developing countries (McNeill and Van Elswyk, 2012). However, in developed countries where high fat and calorie intake is common, excessive meat consumption may contribute to the development of non-communicable diseases, including cardiovascular disease, obesity, dyslipidemia, and cancer (Aykan, 2015; Daniel et al., 2011). Red meat such as fresh pork belly is a major source of fat in the diet and is widely believed to contribute to the development of adverse health conditions (Salter, 2018).

Excessive consumption of high-fat pork cuts: implications for cardiovascular disease and cancer risk

The role of animal fat in atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease remains to be determined, with conflicting results from prospective cohort studies (Kaluza et al., 2012). Nonetheless, substantial evidence links the excessive consumption of red meat to colon cancer and cardiovascular disease (Farvid et al., 2021; Zhong et al., 2020). In particular, the high-fat content of pork belly is strongly associated with dyslipidemia and cardiovascular diseases. This relationship is widely acknowledged, and there is little dispute about the potential harm of excessive consumption of high-fat pork cuts, such as belly (Choe et al., 2015; Kityo et al., 2023).

Unprocessed pork belly contains approximately 48% fat and 39% lean content, with the dorsal part having the highest fat content and the ventral part having the lowest (Nam et al., 2010). MUFAs are the most abundant fatty acids in pork belly, followed by SFAs and PUFAs (47%, 36%, and 16%, respectively) (Correa et al., 2008). The proportions of specific fatty acids in the diet are associated with the causes and prevention of coronary heart disease (CHD) rather than with the total amount of fat (Flock and Kris-Etherton, 2013; Sauder et al., 2013). Red meat, which contains SFAs, is strongly associated with CHD incidence, whereas substituting SFAs with MUFAs or PUFAs significantly reduces CHD risk (Jakobsen et al., 2009; Lenighan et al., 2019). SFAs increase the LDL/high-density lipoprotein (HDL) ratio, leading to foam cell formation and atherosclerosis (Maki et al., 2021). The American Heart Association's recommendation to decrease SFA intake in 1961 resulted in a significant decline in CHD in Western countries (Micha and Mozaffarian, 2010). Replacing SFAs with MUFAs or PUFAs reduces the incidence of CHD more effectively than simply reducing the total fat consumption (Wan Musa et al., 2022; Wang, 2018). When SFAs were substituted with MUFAs, the LDL-C level and total cholesterol/HDL-C ratio were reduced. The PUFA/SFA ratio is an important indicator of CHD, and a lower ratio is associated with a higher risk of CHD (Jakobsen et al., 2009). Fresh pork belly had a PUFA/SFA ratio of 0.48 and an n-6/n-3 ratio of 17.98. A PUFA/SFA ratio of 0.45 or above and an n-6/n-3 ratio of 4.0 or below are recommended in the United Kingdom.

The Korean Dietary Reference Intakes recommend that daily fat intake should not exceed 15–30% of the total energy intake, with saturated fat intake limited to 7.0% and total cholesterol intake less than 300 mg/day. In addition, adequate intake of alpha-linoleic acid is suggested as 1.2–1.6 g/day for adults (Ministry of Health and Welfare, 2023). According to the AHA guidelines, saturated fat intake should be limited to 5–6% of the daily calories (AHA, 2023). However, fresh pork belly contains approximately 48% fat and 441 cal per 100 g, which exceeds these guidelines. In 2011, Koreans consumed 24 g of pork belly per day, resulting in an intake of 11.5 g (104 cal) of fat, 4.1 g (37 cal) of saturated fats, and 17.3 mg of cholesterol from pork belly alone (Choe et al., 2015). When adjusted for age, Korean adults consume a significant amount of fresh pork belly, which increases the risk of noncommunicable diseases. The intake of approximately 100–200 g of fresh belly meat exceeds the recommended limits for saturated fat, cholesterol, and total fat. Consequently, most health organizations recommend limiting red meat consumption to reduce saturated fat and cholesterol intake. In summary, excessive pork belly consumption as a part of an imbalanced diet may lead to inadequate nutrient intake and abnormal fatty acid profiles, adversely affecting long-term health (Table 1).

Table 1.

Nutritional composition of different pork cuts (raw and cooked)

Energy
(kcal/100 g)		 Water
(g/100 g)		 Protein
(g/100 g)		 Fat
(g/100 g)		 Ash
(g/100 g)		 Carbohydrate
(g/100 g)
Belly
 Raw 348 48.9 15.8 26.4 0.9 8.0
 Roasted 493 32.7 21.9 41.1 1.0 3.3
Ham
 Raw 235 63.6 18.5 16.5 1.1 0.3
 Roasted 299 45.7 38.2 14.1 0.8 1.2
Loin
 Raw 155 66.7 22.2 3.8 1.1 6.2
 Roasted 242 57.9 27.3 13.9 1.4 0.0
Tender loin
 Raw 186 70.8 14.1 13.2 1.4 0.5
 Roasted 220 53.4 40.3 5.3 1.0 0.0
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Data from food composition table of Rural Development Administration (2011)

Future directions for the pork industry and public health in South Korean households

As mentioned above, the high demand and strong preference for pork belly in South Korea have created an imbalance in the supply and demand of pork, resulting in an increase in the price of pork belly and a depreciation in the relative economic value of other pig parts. These trends should be considered in the pork industry. The statistics presented in Table 2 from Statistics Korea indicate that although pig productivity has slightly improved with an increase in post-weaned piglets per sow per year and the number of marketed pigs per sow per year, pig production costs per 100 kg live weight have significantly increased from 2016 to 2021 (excluding 2019 due to foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) outbreaks), leading to a decrease in net income (KOSIS, 2023). As pork belly is the most consumed pork, producers have shifted their net income losses to the price of pork belly, resulting in a continuous increase in pork prices.

Table 2.

Pig production cost per 100 kg live weight and pig productivity

Year
2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Production costa 266,731 283,648 284,391 283,662 276,370 298,247
Net incomea 81,699 85,594 48,400 6,339 46,949 68,036
PSYb 21.2 21.1 21.1 21.3 23.7 24.0
MSYc 17.9 18.2 18.1 18.9 21.2 21.5
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Data from Statistics Korea

aKorean won

bNumber of post weaned piglet per sow per year

cNumber of marketed pigs per sow per year

Moreover, research has shown that excess fat consumption, including pork belly, threatens public health in South Korea (Choe et al., 2015; Kityo et al., 2023). Therefore, a desirable shift in pork consumption would be to decrease pork belly consumption and increase the consumption of other lean cuts. In summary, the high demand for pork belly in South Korea has led to an imbalance between the supply and demand of pork production. This trend has caused an increase in the price of pork belly, decreased the value of other parts of the pig, and threatened public health owing to excessive fat consumption. A shift towards consuming leaner pork cuts is desirable for the pork industry and public health in South Korea.

A recent survey summarized in Table 3 reveals a significant shift in pork cut purchase patterns in South Korean households, according to the Consumer Behavior Survey for Food 2022 from the Korean Rural Economic Institute (KREI, 2023). From 2019 to 2022, the proportion of pork belly purchases among pork cuts consistently accounted for more than half of the total. At the same time, despite the constant popularity of belly for roasting, there was an increase in the purchase of picnic shoulders and ham by 0.5% and a 1.7% increase in the purchase of loin. These tendencies, as reported, are not temporary and suggest a need to promote the consumption of low-fat primal cuts, not only for consumer health reasons but also for the stabilization of the pork industry.

Table 3.

Changes in purchase patterns of primal pork cuts roasted in South Korean households

Cut of meat Year
2019 (%) 2020 (%) 2021 (%) 2022 (%)
Belly 56.9 57.1 57.1 57.8
Boston butt 37.7 37.1 35.8 33.8
Rib 1.30 1.10 1.60 2.30
Picnic shoulder and ham 1.00 1.60 1.50 1.50
Loin 1.30 1.80 2.20 3.00
Tenderloin 1.80 1.30 1.60 1.60
Other – – 0.10 –
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Data from Korean Rural Economic Institute

Conclusions

Pork is a rich source of proteins, vitamins, and minerals. It is highly favored by consumers in South Korea, who have a particular preference for pork belly, despite its high fat content and low yield. However, this unique and strong consumption pattern has resulted in a significant imbalance between the demand and supply of pork belly, making South Korea heavily reliant on imports from foreign countries. Unfortunately, the excessive consumption of pork bellies as part of an unbalanced diet can lead to inadequate nutrient intake and abnormal fatty acid profiles, negatively affecting long-term health. Therefore, the preference for pork belly in South Korea carries potential risks for both the domestic pork industry and consumer health. Nevertheless, a meaningful shift has recently been observed with an increase in the consumption of low-fat primal cuts. These changes in pork consumption not only stabilized the pork industry but also promoted consumer welfare in South Korea.

Declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no competing interests.

Footnotes

Publisher's Note

Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Sumin Kang and Gyoungok Gang have contributed equally to this work.

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