Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Food Chemistry: X logoLink to Food Chemistry: X
. 2023 Dec 13;21:101067. doi: 10.1016/j.fochx.2023.101067

Probiotic-driven advancement: Exploring the intricacies of mineral absorption in the human body

Rodica-Anita Varvara a, Dan Cristian Vodnar a,⁎
PMCID: PMC10767166  PMID: 38187950

Graphical abstract

graphic file with name ga1.jpg

Open in a new tab

Keywords: Gut microbiota, Probiotics, Minerals, Absorption mechanisms, Nutrition

Highlights

  • •

    Mineral absorption can be enhanced by the beneficial bacteria in the human gut.

  • •

    The interplay between probiotics and minerals is influenced by various factors.

  • •

    Novel interventions to promote mineral bioaccessibility and overall health.

Abstract

The interplay between probiotics and mineral absorption is a topic of growing interest due to its great potential for human well-being. Minerals are vital in various physiological processes, and deficiencies can lead to significant health problems. Probiotics, beneficial microorganisms residing in the gut, have recently gained attention for their ability to modulate mineral absorption and mitigate deficiencies. The aim of the present review is to investigate the intricate connection between probiotics and the absorption of key minerals such as calcium, selenium, zinc, magnesium, and potassium. However, variability in probiotic strains, and dosages, alongside the unique composition of individuals in gut microbiota, pose challenges in establishing universal guidelines. An improved understanding of these mechanisms will enable the development of targeted probiotic interventions to optimize mineral absorption and promote human health.

Introduction

The term “probiotic” is an association between the Greek word “pro,” which means “promoting”, and “biotic,” which means “life” (Ballini et al., 2019, Manzoor et al., 2022). According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), probiotics are viable microorganisms that thrive naturally in the gut and, when administered in adequate amounts, offer beneficial effects on human health. The mechanism of action of probiotics is multi-dimensional. They can colonize the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), host tissues, and the skin and beneficially alter the microbiota, helping to maintain intestinal bacteria balance (Katarzyna and Joanna, 2017, Manzoor et al., 2022). Probiotics are also implicated in the gut-brain axis, sustaining mental health and enhancing immune function (Markowiak-Kopeć and Śliżewska, 2020, Mohajeri et al., 2018).

The most known microorganisms for probiotic properties are the Lactobacillus family (lactis, acidophilus, etc.) Bifidobacterium (bifidum, infantis, etc.) Streptococcus group (thermophilus, lactis, etc.) and some yeasts, such as Saccharomyces boulardii (Manzoor et al., 2022, Nemes et al., 2022). They are commonly found in certain foods and dietary supplements as well. Recently, probiotics have received particular attention due to their ability to modulate nutrient absorption and act as a barrier against pathogenic bacteria in the intestinal mucosa, influencing the gut-brain axis (Bielik & Kolisek, 2021).

Probiotics may also be involved in the mineral metabolism (calcium (Ca), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), selenium (Se), potassium (K), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), etc.), facilitating their absorption (Czajeczny et al., 2021). Research indicates that the level of minerals in the human body is primarily associated with its intake from the diet. At the same time, the functioning of the human body is related not only to the quantity of minerals but also to their proportion and the percentage of their absorption (Weyh et al., 2022). It was shown that probiotics can influence mineral absorption in the body. Some strains of probiotics have been found to enhance the absorption of certain minerals, while others may inhibit or have no effect on mineral absorption (Behera et al., 2020, Katarzyna and Joanna, 2017, Scholz-Ahrens et al., 2007). However, the mechanisms through which probiotics interact with mineral absorption are not yet fully understood and may vary depending on the specific strain of probiotics and the type of mineral.

It is important to note that the effects of probiotics on mineral absorption can vary depending on many factors, including the specific probiotic strain, the dose and duration of probiotic supplementation, the presence of other nutrients or dietary components, and individual differences in the gut microbiota and overall health (Bielik & Kolisek, 2021). Therefore, more research is needed to understand the complex interactions between probiotics and mineral absorption and determine the optimal conditions to maximize potential benefits.

The aim of this paper is to provide a general overview of the absorption mechanism of minerals mediated by bacterial strains to explore the possible interconnection of probiotics with mineral homeostasis in human health.

Methods of literature selection

In order to identify publications on mineral absorption driven by probiotics, a literature search was conducted on Science Direct, PubMed, and Web of Science databases using the combinations of the key terms: “mineral absorption and probiotics”, “calcium absorption and probiotics”, “selenium absorption and probiotics”, “magnesium absorption and probiotics”, “zinc absorption and probiotics”, “potassium absorption and probiotics”; also each mineral and the following combinations: “absorption mechanism of + each mineral”, “clinical implications of probiotics in mineral metabolism”. The review collected, analyzed and qualitatively re-synthesized information regarding (i) the importance of each mineral in the human body, (ii) the absorption mechanism, (iii) factors influencing the absorption mechanism, (iv) the link between probiotics and mineral absorption, and (v) clinical implications and future directions. The provided data encompasses publications from 2017 to 2023, consisting of a total of 100 research articles that are relevant and compatible with our topic of interest.

The intricate significance of minerals in the human body

The vital significance of Ca, Se, Zn, Mg, and K in the human body is highlighted by numerous researchers (Clase et al., 2020, Huang et al., 2022, Kanwar and Sharma, 2022, Kieliszek and Bano, 2022, Kodama et al., 2020, Minich, 2022, Raveschot et al., 2020, Rizzoli and Biver, 2020, Trapani et al., 2022, Zoroddu et al., 2019). These minerals are essential for our daily nourishment (Weyh et al., 2022). They are chemical elements that play a structural role in the human body and are indispensable for several metabolic functions (Katarzyna & Joanna, 2017).

Minerals are recognized as structural materials for bones, which regulate hydric balance and influence muscle and nerve function (Weyh et al., 2022). They are chemical elements that play a structural role in the human body and are indispensable for several metabolic functions (Katarzyna & Joanna, 2017). Hormones, enzymes, and other bioactive components depend on the catalytic action of minerals. Similarly, minerals are connected to the proper functioning of the immune system, influencing susceptibility to infections and even the development of chronic diseases (Bielik and Kolisek, 2021, Weyh et al., 2022) such as neurodegenerative diseases (Mitrea et al., 2022), osteoporosis (Gholami et al., 2022, Tyagi et al., 2018), diabetes (Steinbrenner et al., 2022), etc.

Most individuals can provide the body with sufficient amounts of vital minerals through a balanced diet. However, an increasing number of people are at risk of mineral deficiencies due to particular life circumstances (e. g., patients with chronic diseases, women during pregnancy, the elderly, vegetarians, vegans, etc.) or various lifestyle habits (e. g., poor sleeping habits, unhealthy dietary choices, etc.). Around 50 % of the worldwide population is affected by micronutrient malnutrition (Weyh et al., 2022). In addition, the World Health Organization (WHO) estimates that 2 billion people have micronutrient deficiencies (www.who.int).

The localization, or the specific location where absorption occurs for the abovementioned minerals, is illustrated in Fig. 1, providing visual clarity of each part of the intestine. Fig. 2 presents the mechanism of mineral absorption in the intestine. Mineral absorption in the gut occurs through paracellular and/or transcellular pathways. Specific transporters and pumps facilitate mineral uptake, such as TRPV6 for Ca (Khattar et al., 2022). Some minerals may undergo exchange with other ions during absorption. For example, Zn absorption can be influenced by the exchange with other divalent cations, such as copper, through transporters like ZIP4, responsible for Zn uptake in the intestine (Nishito & Kambe, 2018). Enterocytes synthesize proteins like calbindin D for Ca or TRPV6 (Khattar et al., 2022) and claudin for Mg (Luongo et al., 2018), aiding in mineral absorption. Absorbed minerals are transported across the basolateral membrane into the blood for systemic distribution via various mechanisms, including ATPase pumps and binding to carrier proteins like transferrin (Bielik & Kolisek, 2021).

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

Open in a new tab

Localization of mineral absorption despite the origin.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

Open in a new tab

The journey of mineral absorption in the human gut.

The dynamic interplay of the gut microbiota in mineral absorption

The GM, which refers to trillions of microorganisms that reside in the GIT (Sehrawat et al., 2021), can interact with minerals in several ways (Bielik & Kolisek, 2021). These microorganisms can enhance or inhibit the absorption of minerals in the digestive tract. The mechanisms by which GM can influence mineral absorption are complex and involve various interactions between microorganisms, minerals, and host cells (Bielik and Kolisek, 2021, Katarzyna and Joanna, 2017, Krausova et al., 2021, Peredo-Lovillo et al., 2020).

One way in which GM can interact with minerals is by producing enzymes that can break down complex minerals, making them more accessible to the host for absorption (D. Zhou et al., 2021). For example, bacteria in the gut produce phytases that humans or monogastric animals cannot endogenously produce. Phytases can break down phytic acid, a compound found in many plant-based foods that can bind to minerals and prevent their absorption (Nath et al., 2018). By breaking down phytic acid, these bacteria can release minerals like Ca, Mg, and Zn, making them available for absorption in the small intestine. Phytase hydrolyses phosphomonoester linkages in phytate during enzymatic conversion, resulting in an inorganic phosphate and a derivative of myo inositol phosphates (Scholz-Ahrens et al., 2007). The most known microorganisms as producers of phytase are Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus coagulans and different strains of the Lactobacillus family (acidophilus, fermentum, plantarum, casei, brevis, etc.)(Priyodip et al., 2017). Also, gut dysbiosis, an imbalance in the GM, can lead to impaired mineral absorption. The lack of beneficial bacteria in the gut can lead to decreased phytase production, resulting in decreased mineral absorption (Nath et al., 2018). It was observed that the phytases resulting from microorganisms are more effective in mineral absorption in animals than in plants or animal tissues (Nath et al., 2018; D. Zhou et al., 2021).

Another way in which GM can influence mineral absorption is by altering the gut environment (Markowiak-Kopeć & Śliżewska, 2020). The GM can produce short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) as by-products of their metabolism of dietary fiber. Fermentation of dietary fibers increases the surface area accessible for mineral absorption (epithelial cell hypertrophy) in rats (Fardet, 2010). These SCFAs can lower the pH of the gut, which can increase the solubility of certain minerals (Mg, Ca, Se, Zn, etc.), making them more accessible for the host to absorb (Barkhidarian et al., 2021, Whisner et al., 2016). For example, reducing pH in the intestine leads to the dissolution of Ca ions, facilitating their delivery to cells through the paracellular pathway and regulating the mineral density of bones (Li et al., 2021). On the other hand, a high pH in the gut can reduce mineral absorption. Some medications, such as proton pump inhibitors (PPIs), can decrease Mg absorption by reducing stomach acid production, which is necessary to activate the Mg transporter TRPM6 (De Baaij et al., 2023, Leenders and Vervloet, 2019). GM can also produce other compounds that can bind to minerals and prevent their absorption, such as oxalates. Oxalate or oxalic acid can form salts with K ions and bind to Mg and Ca, restricting their absorption. Usually, these salts are insoluble at a neutral or high (alkaline) pH, but they freely dissolve in an acidic environment (Israr et al., 2013, Noonan, 1999).

Moreover, GM can affect the expression of genes involved in mineral absorption in the host cells. For instance, certain bacteria can promote the expression of genes that increase the host cell’s ability to absorb iron (Fe). Inulin supplementation in pigs expanded the caecal microbial population in the genera Bifidobacteria and Lactobacillus, which further led to an upregulation of the expression of genes for Fe transporters, ferritin, and enzymes in the gut enterocytes (Tako et al., 2008).

GM can interact with minerals in the digestive tract through various mechanisms, including the production of enzymes that break down complex minerals, alter the gut environment, and affect gene expression in host cells. The complex interactions between gut microbiota and minerals affect nutrient status and overall health.

Highlights of the synergy between probiotics and mineral absorption

The potency of probiotics for optimal calcium absorption

It was shown that a healthy GM could increase Ca2+ absorption and modulate gut production of serotonin. The monoamine neurotransmitter, serotonin, is believed to regulate bone metabolism through its interaction with bone cells, possibly mediating the microbiota and bones (D’Amelio and Sassi, 2018). Other studies present conclusive evidence that probiotics improve bone health by modulating osteoblast bone formation by osteoblasts and osteoclast bone resorption (Ibrahim et al., 2022, Li et al., 2021, Xie et al., 2020).

One possible mechanism for higher absorption of Ca2+ in the intestine is increasing its bioaccessibility by administering probiotics (Bielik and Kolisek, 2021, Raveschot et al., 2020). In their study, Raveschot et al. reported that five Lactobacillus strains (109 CFU/mL) improved total Ca2+ transport after 24 h of contact with a differentiated Caco-2 cell monolayer. The L. plantarum strain increased cellular Ca2+ uptake in Caco-2 cells by 10 % compared to the control. L. plantarum modulated the transcellular pathway and enhanced the expression of vitamin D receptors and Ca transporters. While the L. delbrueckii strain performed on the paracellular path by modulating the expression of claudin-2 (Raveschot et al., 2020). Broilers predisposed to tibial dyschondroplasia were supplemented with L. rhamnosus strain. An improvement in the average growth and development of the tibial growth plate was observed alongside a restored Ca balance, suggesting that L. rhamnosus may represent a therapeutic procedure to treat leg disease in broilers (Liu et al., 2021). In a randomized double-blinded placebo-controlled study, symbiotic tablets were administered to healthy pediatric individuals (Lactobacillus acidophilus, Lactobacillus plantarum, Bifidobacterium infantis, Bifidobacterium Lactis – 45 × 109 CFU, and fructooligosaccharides) for ten weeks. An increase of 4 % in serum Ca level was observed for the symbiotic group, while, in the placebo group, there was a 7 % decrease in serum Ca level (Ballini et al., 2019).

Furthermore, in a six-month double-blind, randomized clinical trial, 78 postmenopausal women susceptible to osteoporosis were assigned to daily consume enriched yoghurt (Ca, Mg, Zn, vitamins, l-leucine, and L. plantarum 1010 CFU/mL) or control yoghurt. After six months, the group that ingested enriched yoghurt showed a significantly increased bone mineral density compared to the control group. The L. plantarum strain favoured the metabolism of Ca and the other micronutrients metabolism regarding bone mineral density and biochemical parameters (Morato-Martínez et al., 2020).

Another possible mechanism may be the production of several metabolites resulting from the probiotic fermentation of undigested carbohydrates (Li et al., 2021, Peredo-Lovillo et al., 2020). Short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs – e.g. propionate, butyrate, etc.) are the most studied metabolites and exhibit anti-inflammatory properties in the intestinal lining (Behera et al., 2020). The production of SCFAs can influence Ca absorption due to their ability to increase the surface area of the cecal villi and, thus, the absorption. SCFAs can enhance Ca metabolism by increasing the Ca-binding protein expression and paracellular transport. Likewise, a high level of SCFAs can lower the pH of the colon and cecum, improving Ca solubility (Barkhidarian et al., 2021). The reduction in pH leads to the dissolution of minerals and a facile delivery of Ca ions to cells through the paracellular pathway, regulating the mineral density of bones (Li et al., 2021). In a randomized dose–response trial on female adolescents, Ca absorption increased significantly after repeated consumption of soluble corn fiber. The SCFAs resulting after the fermentation of soluble corn fiber have decreased the pH and reduced calcium phosphate formation, enhancing Ca absorption in the intestine (Whisner et al., 2016). Also, SCFAs generated the hormone-insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1, or somatomedin C), which benefits bone development, highlighting a link between the microbiota and bone metabolism (Yan & Charles, 2017). The in vivo capacity of SCFAs to regulate osteoclast metabolism and bone mass was tested in experimental mouse models. Propionate and butyrate were used in the experimental design as a treatment in mice and proved to increase bone mass and prevent inflammation-induced bone loss (Lucas et al., 2018).

All these studies support the feasibility and benefits of probiotic supplementation over standard therapy with Ca and vitamin D to improve bone health and overall Ca absorption mechanism.

Probiotics – A better path to enhanced selenium absorption

GM has been shown to influence Se status and SeP expression in mice. It was found that GM can isolate Se and limit its accessibility in the host. When Se amounts in the host are limitative, microorganisms can compete with the host for Se (Zhu et al., 2019). The Lactobacillus plantarum strain was enriched with Se and Zn, resulting in an increased blood Se level and a higher antioxidant activity (Kang et al., 2020).

Two microbial strains (Enterococcus faecium and Streptococcus thermophilus) were enriched with Se and administered to rats in conjunction with two other formulations without probiotics. Following the administration of Se-enriched strains, an increase in Se concentration was observed, with SeCys as the predominant form of Se, in the liver and kidneys of rats. Both tested strains proved to have great potential to improve the absorption mechanism of Se (Krausova et al., 2021). An increased absorption and distribution of Se into the pancreas was observed after administering Se-B. longum to rats, in comparison to the Na2SeO3 formulation (Zhao et al., 2020). Another study suggests that B. longum can biotransform inorganic Se into more bioactive forms of SePs and seven amino acids, making them more accessible to the human body (Zhu et al., 2019). Although Na2SeO3 exhibited the fastest time to reach the maximum absorbable concentration, supplementation with the organic Se formulations (selenized yeast and Se-B. longum) showed more efficient absorption, as these formulations had a higher accumulation and longer retention time of Se in the blood (Y. Zhou et al., 2020). Also, the co-administration of probiotics (Lactobacillus acidophilus, Bifidobacterium bifidum and Bifidobacterium longum, 2 × 109 UFC/day each) and Se (200 µg/day, sodium selenite) improved Se absorption of Se in the plasma for patients with Alzheimer’s disease, resulting in better cognitive function (Barchielli et al., 2022).

These Se-enriched probiotics incorporated into foods can not only promote digestion and absorption, and enhance immunity needed by the human organism, but can also provide abundant organic Se source (mainly as SeP), which can meet human body needs from two perspectives of nutrient element supplementation and health care. Currently, Se-enriched microorganisms are mainly used in the nourishment of the livestock industry, with the ultimate purpose of improving the quality of meat products and providing organic Se that is conducive to human intestinal absorption (Yang & Yang, 2023).

Zinc Fortified: Probiotics power on improved zinc absorption

Recent studies suggest that certain probiotics may enhance Zn absorption in the body through different mechanisms. Some studies have found that Zn absorption from the diet may be increased through the expression of specific proteins involved in Zn transport across the intestinal wall. Other studies suggest that Zn absorption can be mediated through the production of SCFA, by lowering the gut's pH, which can increase the solubility and promote its absorption (Malyar et al., 2020, Mohammad Malyar et al., 2019).

An early research explicitly dealing with the in vitro absorption of Se and Zn internalized by probiotics and then tested on an intestinal cell culture model dates from 2012. Mogna et al., 2012 used a Caco-2 cell line that resembles human colonic cells as much as possible, equipped with specific enzymatic and transport systems for Se and Zn. They evaluated the vehicles of different forms of Se and Zn (Se/Zn + probiotics, organic and inorganic forms of these minerals) in a Transwell system. Experimental data indicate a significantly higher bioaccessibility of Se and Zn internalized by L. buchneri and B. lactis compared to the inorganic and organic forms tested. The results show the highest absorption and cell diffusion in Caco-2 for the formulations developed with probiotics (with Se/Zn). Se internalized by L. buchneri was 65 times more readily absorbed than seleno-l-cysteine, and Zn internalized by B. lactis was 31 times more readily absorbed than zinc sulphate. Also, improved in vivo bioaccessibility and systematic relevance were suggested (Mogna et al., 2012).

Recently, other researchers have focused on Zn-enriched probiotics, too (Jagan et al., 2018, Maares et al., 2022, Meng et al., 2022). In the study by Maares et al., experiments using a human in vitro digestion model and the Caco-2 in vitro intestinal cell model revealed that the intestinal Zn bioaccessibility of digested yeast biomass was comparable to the other Zn supplements, except for ZnO, which was slightly less bioaccessible. The Zn assimilation of Saccharomyces pastorianus was 5.9 mg Zn/g yeast, representing 0.6 % of the yeast biomass. Zn released from metabolized ZnYeast proved to be more accessible for biological processes within enterocytes, resulting in up-regulation of metallothionein, an intestinal biomarker of Zn status that significantly increased the cellular labile Zn pool (Maares et al., 2022).

The level of Zn in the blood can be influenced by the intake of dietary supplementation and is related to metabolism. The blood Zn level in the group of mice supplemented with Se/Zn internalized by Lactobacillus plantarum (SZ + Lp) was significantly higher than in the control group. The Zn concentration in blood was approximately 40 mg/L in the SZ + Lp group, while in the control group was a little over 20 mg/L (Kang et al., 2020). On the other hand, the enrichment of L. plantarum with Zn also proved to benefit the strain, by improving its physiological and functional characteristics. The Zn-enriched L. plantarum showed an increased acid production capacity and greater tolerance ability to bile salt, acid and H2O2. The antioxidant properties of the Zn-enriched strain improved significantly, along with the antioxidative enzyme activities. The L. plantarum strain proved to be a great carrier of Zn with possible application in the food industries (Meng et al., 2022).

Furthermore, another bacterial strain, L. fermentum, was studied in relation to Zn absorption. Interestingly, L. fermentum was shown to have the ability to biotransform the internalized inorganic Zn into its organic form, facilitating its absorption when administered to Wistar rats. An increased level of Zn was observed in serum, liver, femur bone and hair after 4 weeks of the administration of Zn-enriched L. fermentum (Jagan et al., 2018).

Thus, studies have shown that certain probiotics can enhance the absorption of Zn in the body through different mechanisms. Probiotics can increase the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of Zn, which can be attributed to the expression of specific proteins involved in Zn transport across the intestinal wall or the production of SCFA that lowers the gut’s pH and promotes Zn solubility. The bioaccessibility of Zn can also be improved by biotransforming inorganic Zn into its organic form by certain probiotic strains. These findings suggest that Zn-enriched probiotics have the potential to be used as functional foods in the food industry and may provide a promising strategy to improve Zn nutrition and prevent Zn deficiency and related diseases.

Probiotics paving the way to optimal magnesium absorption

The relationship of Mg with probiotics has yet to be studied. Thus, the exact mechanisms by which probiotics enhance Mg absorption are not fully understood, but several ways and processes may be involved (García-Legorreta et al., 2020). The strain HN001 of L. rhamnosus was shown to improve Ca and Mg absorption in growing rats by improving bone density at spine and femur levels after 12 weeks of daily intake, compared to the control group (Kruger et al., 2009). Possible action mechanisms may be linked to the bacterial production of SCFAs by lowering the pH in the intestine, which may further increase the mineral solubility. Increased enterocyte proliferation expands the area of absorption in the rat's large intestine and facilitates Ca and Mg absorption. SCFAs may also promote the growth of beneficial bacteria in the gut, which can further facilitate Mg absorption (Kruger et al., 2009, Louzada et al., 2019).

Another potential mechanism is the improvement of intestinal motility by probiotics (Dimidi et al., 2017). This can increase the time Mg is in contact with the gut lining, allowing a more efficient absorption (Duttaroy, 2021, Noland et al., 2020). Additionally, probiotics can help reduce inflammation in the gut, improving overall intestinal health, and increase nutrient absorption (Cristofori et al., 2021). The transcellular pathway involves the active transport of Mg ions through the intestinal lining through specialized transport proteins. Some studies have suggested that probiotics can enhance the expression and activity of these transport proteins, leading to increased Mg absorption. On the other hand, the paracellular pathway involves the passive diffusion of Mg ions through the tight junctions between gut epithelial cells. Probiotics may help to regulate the tightness of these junctions, which can impact the movement of Mg ions and other nutrients across the gut lining (Kruger et al., 2009).

A few studies have investigated the relationship between probiotics and Mg absorption. For example, in a pilot study with 12 patients diagnosed with SSRI-resistant depression, a mixture of probiotics (10 billion CFU L. acidophilus/4 billion CFU B. bifidum/6 billion CFU S. thermophiles) and magnesium orotate (1600 mg) were tested. The intervention with the mix was two daily doses for 8 weeks. After 8 weeks, it was followed up at 16 weeks. The combination of probiotics and magnesium orotate was chosen due to the involvement of Mg in the proper functioning of the brain and the ability of probiotics to modulate the gut-brain axis. The reported results show a mean Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) score of 16.1, which means mild depression. Also, the energy levels and the well-being of the patients were improved. The administration of the mixture proved to have a significant antidepressive effect with the help of probiotics which enhanced Mg absorption (Bambling et al., 2017).

Moreover, functional foods like prebiotics (mannan oligosaccharide), probiotics (L. acidophilus, Enterococcus faecium, B. thermophilum, and B. longum (2–5 109 UFC each)) and symbiotics (prebiotic + probiotic) proved to improve several health parameters (Mg, P, Ca status in bone composition, bone mineral density (BMD), bone mineral content (BMC), resilience, stiffness) when administered to rats exposed or not exposed to passive cigarette smoke. The concentration of Mg increased considerably in the femur of rats that received the formulation containing only probiotics, whether they were exposed to cigarette smoke, reaching the highest value (6.73 mg/g) compared to the other groups and the other formulations assigned. This group enhanced all the health parameters (Louzada et al., 2019). Another 30-day experiment reveals infant formulas supplemented with B. bifidum and B. longum can increase Mg bioavailability in rats. It was shown that Mg apparent absorption and retention ratios were higher than 80 % throughout the first balance period of the experiment (Dario et al., 2013).

On the other hand, a dietary Mg deficiency was correlated with reduced microbial diversity and a substantially modified microbiota after six weeks of experiment with mice (C57BL/6 mice) using the light/dark box anxiety test. After six weeks, the mice showed anxiety-like behaviour, which was determined by the low latency to move in the lightbox. A homoeostatic GM-brain axis may be disrupted by a Mg deficit (Pyndt Jørgensen et al., 2015). Additionally, dietary Mg supplementation in the case of no mineral deficiency may also lead to intestinal dysbiosis development (García-Legorreta et al., 2020).

Specific strains of probiotics may play a role in the absorption of Mg, along with individual differences in the composition of GM and overall gut health. The dose and duration of probiotic supplementation may also impact their effectiveness in increasing Mg absorption. However, more research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms underlying the relationship between probiotics and Mg absorption and determine the most effective strains and doses for this purpose.

Improved potassium absorption empowered by probiotics

Probiotics may be involved in K absorption through various mechanisms, including modulating GM’s composition and improving gut health. For instance, probiotics may help to regulate the tightness of tight junctions between gut epithelial cells, thereby facilitating the paracellular transport of K ions.

Factors that may influence K absorption driven by probiotics can be related to the specific strains and doses of probiotics used, also individual differences in GM composition may interfere with the absorption mechanism. Other factors that may alter K absorption include the presence of other nutrients, such as sodium, that can compete for absorption.

Several studies have investigated the relationship between probiotics and K absorption (Cao et al., 2020, El-Sayed and Mousa, 2019, Sadeek, 2018). For example, Bacillus subtilis was tested in growing Barki lambs to investigate its potential effect on body growth and mineral concentrations. After 30 days of experiment, the serum K concentration in the group fed a basal diet supplemented with probiotics increased to 4.9 mmol/L, while in the control group it was 3.9 mmol/L. Also, animal growth performance was improved, in terms of body weight, height and length, chest girth, and anamorphosis indices (El-Sayed & Mousa, 2019). The impact of probiotic supplementation was also evaluated in a double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled study in patients with chronic kidney disease. After 3 months of probiotic administration (Streptococcus thermophilus, Lactobacillus acidophilus and Bifidobacteria longum), an increase in K concentration was observed from 4.4 mmol/L to 4.8 mmol/L. The results suggest that the probiotic intervention did not have a notable influence on the absorption of K in this particular study (Borges et al., 2018). L. casei Shirota was tested on rats subjected to oxidative stress and with chronic renal failure. After 8 weeks of treatment only with the probiotic strain, an increased concentration of serum K was observed. A possible mechanism of the enhanced absorption of K may be the ability of L. casei Shirota to modulate gut microbiota. L. casei can promote the growth and activity of specific bacteria that play a role in the absorption of K or that it directly affected the absorption process (Sadeek, 2018).

Moreover, another study explored the effects of probiotics on intestinal digestion and absorption, antioxidant capacity, and microbiota composition in fattening pigs. The administration of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens to these pigs resulted in favourable changes in the activity of digestive enzymes within the intestinal tract. A positive impact on Na+/K+-ATPase enzyme activity was observed. This enzyme plays a crucial role in maintaining electrochemical balance in cells, being responsible for pumping sodium ions (Na+) out of the cell and K ions (K+) into the cell. Thus, the Na+/K+-ATPase enzyme contributes significantly to maintaining normal functionality of intestinal cells and facilitating nutrient absorption (Cao et al., 2020).

A multi-strain probiotic mix (L. delbrueckii ssp. bulgaricus, L. acidophilus, L. helveticus, L. delbrueckii ssp. lactis, Streptococcus thermophilus and Enterococcus faecium) was tested on the internal milieu of broiler chickens after oral administration. Regarding K absorption, the study found that probiotic supplementation had a remarkable effect on enhancing K absorption in broiler chickens. K level in serum was 5.37 mmol/L in the supplemented group, compared to the control group, where K level was 4.91 mmol/L. The oral intake of this combination of probiotic strains had an important impact on improving K absorption within the broiler chickens’ GIT (Capcarova et al., 2011).

Interestingly, the addition of L. rhamnosus in white soft cheese increased the mineral concentration. The K concentration is the white cheese containing L. rhamnosus was 7.98 mg/L, while in the control was only 6.33 mg/L. This growth can be attributed to the intensified enzymatic conversion, predominantly proteolysis and lipolysis (Dafalla et al., 2021). The effect of L. rhamnosus supplementation was considered for an in-vitro experiment regarding the availability of minerals, including K, from cheeses and cheese-like products. The results suggested that the presence of the probiotic strain, L. rhamnosus, increased K availability by 36 % in cheese-like products that ripened for six weeks, while in Swiss-type cheese only 11 %. Probiotic supplementation seemed to enhance the bioavailability of K in these products, meaning an increased bioaccessibility of K for absorption in vivo. Further research is needed to determine the exact mechanisms by which L. rhamnosus alters K absorption and to validate these results in human studies (Aljewicz & Cichosz, 2015).

Overall, while the evidence for the involvement of probiotics in K absorption and utilization is promising, more research is needed to fully understand the mechanisms and optimize the use of probiotics for this purpose. It is also important to note that individual differences in GM composition and overall gut health may impact the effectiveness of probiotics for enhancing mineral absorption, including K.

Table 1 presents a concise overview of research findings linking minerals, probiotics, study methodologies, and their respective impacts on health.

Table 1.

Amplified mineral bioaccessibility in the gut and exploring the involved mechanisms.

Mineral Probiotic Type of study Nr. of subjects Intervention Mechanism Outcome Ref.
Calcium Konjac Oligosaccharides improved microbial genera of Lactobacillus, Bifidobacteria, Mucispirillum, Alistipes. In vivo (on mice) 60 8 weeks
  • •

    The administration of konjac oligosaccharides modulated the gut environment by facilitating the growth of Lactobacillus, Bifidobacteria, Mucispirillum etc.
  • •

    Improved skeletal mechanical strength

 (Ai et al., 2021)
  • •

    Modified GM, and gut metabolites

  • •

    Increased bone mass

  • •

    Enhanced Ca absorption.

Symbiotic yoghurt (inulin (4 g) and L. rhamnosus (107 CFU/mL) In vivo (Young adult women) 30 3 weeks
  • •

    The symbiotic combination may have contributed to better nutrient-nutrient interaction, improving Ca absorption, and showing potential implications for bone health in young adult women.
  • •

    Increased Ca bioavailability in the gut

 (Cornes et al., 2022)
  • •

    supporting overall bone health

  • •

    promoting optimal Ca utilization

Selenium L. plantarum 1012 CFU/day In vivo (mouse model) 32 4 weeks (oral administration)
  • •

    Biotransformation of inorganic Se into bioactive organic Se
  • •

    Increased blood Se level in mice

 (Kang et al., 2020)
  • •

    Increased utilization of seleno-amino acids.

Streptococcus thermophilus and Enterococcus faecium 109 CFU/g In vivo (rat model) 48 58 days
  • •

    Both Se-enriched strains supplied the micronutrient in a more bioaccessible form and less toxic.
  • •

    Higher Se concentrations in the liver and kidneys of rats

 (Krausova et al., 2021)
  • •

    Improved antioxidant status in animals

L. acidophilus and S. cerevisiae 109 CFU/mL In vivo (Wistar rats) 60 30 days
  • •

    Bioaccumulation of Se and Zn by the probiotic strains
  • •

    Increased enzyme activity (glutathione-peroxidase and superoxide-dismutase).

 (Malyar et al., 2020)
  • •

    The expression of genes (GPx1 and SOD1) was also increased.

Zinc L. acidophilus and S. cerevisiae 109 CFU/mL In vivo (Wistar rats) 36 40 days
  • •

    Both Zn-enriched probiotic strains improved Zn absorption
  • •

    Enhanced growth performance in Wistar rats by improving:

 (Mohammad Malyar et al., 2019)
  • •

    antioxidant activity,

  • •

    immune function,

  • •

    liver, heart, and kidney gene expression

  • •

    intestinal morphological characteristics.

L. fermentum In vivo (Wistar rat) 48 4 weeks
  • •

    The probiotic strain proved to have the ability of internalizing and biotransforming inorganic Zn into its organic form, facilitating the absorption.
  • •

    Increased level of Zn in serum, liver, femur bone and hair in Wistar rats.

 (Jagan et al., 2018)
Magnesium L. rhamnosus In vivo (rat model) 62 12 weeks of daily intake
  • •

    Production of SCFAs which may lead to mineral solubility
  • •

    Improved bone density at spine and femur level

 (Kruger et al., 2009)
Lactobacillus acidophilus, Enterococcus faecium, Bifidobacterium thermophilum and Bifidobacterium longum In vivo (rat model) 64 189 days
  • •

    By a reduction in the inflammatory response
  • •

    Mineral content improved in animal model.

 (Louzada et al., 2019)
  • •

    increased levels of SCFAs
  • •

    BMD, BMC, resilience, and the size of area of the femoral diaphysis were also improved in rats in the growth phase.
  • •

    increased secretion of bacterial factors and intestinal hormones.

Potassium Bacillus subtilis In vivo (on Barki lambs) 12 30 days
  • •

    Production of metabolic substrates and modulation of GM
  • •

    Increased serum K concentration in Barki lambs

 (El-Sayed & Mousa, 2019)
  • •

    improved animal growth performance

Streptococcus thermophilus, L. acidophilus and Bifidobacterium longum In vivo (on humans) 46 8 weeks
  • •

    Modulating GM and promoting beneficial bacterial growth
  • •

    Higher level of K in serum

 (Borges et al., 2018)
Open in a new tab

Factors influencing probiotic effects on mineral absorption

The effectiveness of probiotics in enhancing mineral absorption can be influenced by several factors. These factors include the specific strain of probiotic used, dosage, timing of administration, strain-mineral affinity, and individual differences among people (Barkhidarian et al., 2021, Bielik and Kolisek, 2021, Rizzoli and Biver, 2020).

Different strains of probiotics may have varying effects on mineral absorption. Each strain has unique characteristics and may interact with minerals in different ways (Chen et al., 2022, Ferreira et al., 2021, Mm et al., 2022). Some strains may produce enzymes that enhance the bioavailability of minerals, while others may not have the same effect. These enzymes are involved in breaking down complex minerals into more absorbable forms. For instance, lactic acid bacteria produce phytase, an enzyme, which aids in the release of minerals from plant-based products, making them bioaccessible for absorption (D. Zhou et al., 2021). Also, it was shown that some strains may have specific interactions with certain minerals. For example, it was found that Mg absorption may be influenced by L. plantarum, L. reuteri, L. rhamnosus, L. paracasei, and L. acidophilus, while Se absorption may be mediated by S. thermophilus, Enterococcus faecium, B. longum and L. plantarum and some yeasts, etc (Bielik and Kolisek, 2021, Krausova et al., 2021). These microorganisms (and others) may facilitate the solubility, transport, or uptake of minerals in the gut, leading to improved absorption (Dario et al., 2013). Furthermore, probiotic strains can modulate the gut environment (Duttaroy, 2021), including pH levels (Meng et al., 2022), production of metabolites (Lucas et al., 2018), and competition with other gut microbes (Ferreira et al., 2021). Different strains may create distinct gut environments, impacting mineral absorption to varying degrees. These changes can modify the solubility of minerals. Therefore, selecting the appropriate probiotic strain is critical to maximize the potential benefits of mineral absorption (Bielik and Kolisek, 2021, Duttaroy, 2021, Meng et al., 2022).

The dosage of probiotics can play a role in their efficacy. Higher doses of probiotics may lead to more significant effects on mineral absorption. However, the optimal dosage can vary depending on the specific strain and individual factors (Katarzyna and Joanna, 2017, Skrypnik et al., 2019). Probiotics have the ability to adhere to the intestinal membrane, competing with pathogenic bacteria for binding sites and nutrients, including minerals (Ballan et al., 2020, Niranjan et al., 2023). Higher dosages of probiotics are able to restrict pathogenic bacteria growth, thus indirectly enhancing mineral absorption (Ballan et al., 2020, Niranjan et al., 2023, Rabetafika et al., 2023). A low level of probiotics in the gut environment can modify mineral absorption by increasing the pH and lowering the production of certain metabolites, such as SCFAs (De Baaij et al., 2023, Leenders and Vervloet, 2019). These SCFAs facilitate the dissociation of minerals into more absorbable forms (Ashaolu, 2020, Ballan et al., 2020, Markowiak-Kopeć and Śliżewska, 2020). By creating a more favourable environment, probiotics may increase the chances of minerals being released and absorbed by the host (Bielik and Kolisek, 2021, Suliburska et al., 2021). Also, higher doses of probiotics can influence gut motility and transit time, potentially altering the time available for minerals to be absorbed (Dimidi et al., 2017). Rapid transit time may limit the contact time between minerals and the intestinal membrane, reducing the opportunity to be absorbed (Barkhidarian et al., 2021). It is important to note that the impact of the administered dose of probiotics on mineral absorption is not fully understood and may vary depending on factors like the specific strain involved, individual GM composition, and the type of minerals involved. Additionally, the effect may differ between individuals, and what constitutes a “higher dosage” can vary based on various factors. However, homeostasis in the gut is desired to enhance mineral absorption (Bielik and Kolisek, 2021, Śliżewska et al., 2021).

The timing of probiotic administration can impact their interaction with minerals. For example, taking probiotics along with a meal enriched with minerals may enhance their absorption (Jagan et al., 2018, Mohammad Malyar et al., 2019). This is because the presence of food can provide an environment conducive to the survival and activity of probiotic bacteria, allowing them to exert their effects on mineral absorption. On the other hand, taking probiotics on an empty stomach or alongside the intake of antibiotics may not provide the same benefits (Cao et al., 2020). Moreover, the absorption and metabolism of minerals can follow circadian rhythms, the 24-hour biological cycles regulating various bodily functions (Noland et al., 2020). Some research suggests that mineral absorption may vary throughout the day. By considering the timing of probiotic administration in relation to these circadian rhythms, it is possible to optimize mineral absorption during periods when it is naturally more efficient (Turroni et al., 2020). Therefore, considering the timing of probiotic consumption in relation to meals can influence their efficacy.

Individual uniqueness, such as genetic factors, GM composition, and overall health status, can influence how probiotics interact with minerals and their efficiency (Ballan et al., 2020). Each human being has a tailored GM, which can respond differently to the supplementation with probiotics. The efficiency of probiotics can also be impacted by other factors, such as pre-existing disorders affecting the gut, pharmaceutical use, and food in general (Manzoor et al., 2022). Genetic variations may also influence a person’s ability to digest and metabolize minerals. The most effective probiotic therapies can be created by considering these individual variances (Ballan et al., 2020, Mohajeri et al., 2018).

Recent studies highlight the potential influence of nanoscale metal oxides on gut health, potentially inducing Fenton-like effects and oxidative stress (Stuparu-Cretu et al., 2023). This stress may disrupt the balance of the gut microbiota (GM), posing questions about its wider impact on mineral absorption and probiotic efficacy (Bielik and Kolisek, 2021, Pambianchi et al., 2022, Stuparu-Cretu et al., 2023). Oxidative stress is a critical factor affecting mineral absorption in the intestines, modifying the environment, and potentially impacting bioaccessibility and uptake of essential minerals. The disrupted GM, caused by Fenton-like effects, introduces a novel perspective on the intricate factors influencing nutrient metabolism (Pambianchi et al., 2022). Furthermore, the connection to probiotics adds depth to this complex network. Probiotics may play a role in mitigating the consequences of oxidative stress. Exploring how nanoscale metal oxides influence oxidative stress, alter the GM, and subsequently impact mineral absorption offers a rich field for scientific investigation. Understanding how probiotics could alter these impacts presents opportunities for therapies aimed at maintaining optimal gut health (Bielik and Kolisek, 2021, Yu et al., 2021).

In summary, the efficacy of probiotics in improving mineral absorption can be influenced by strain variants, dosage, timing of administration, and individual uniqueness. Considering these factors when selecting and administering probiotics can optimize their potential benefits on mineral absorption. However, it is important to highlight that more research is needed to fully understand the complex interactions between mineral absorption and probiotics intake to provide specific recommendations (Barkhidarian et al., 2021, Bielik and Kolisek, 2021, Manzoor et al., 2022).

Clinical implications and future directions

The clinical implications of probiotics in mineral absorption refer to the possible practical applications and advantages of utilizing probiotics to improve or optimize the absorption of minerals in a clinical setting. Recently, probiotics gained attention for their ability to enhance the bioaccessibility and bioavailability of minerals (Jagan et al., 2018, Krausova et al., 2021, Manzoor et al., 2022). The abovementioned strains can produce enzymes, organic acids, or other metabolites that promote mineral availability and solubility in the GIT. By enhancing mineral bioaccessibility, probiotics can potentially improve their absorption and utilization by the body, leading to a better nutritional status (Bielik and Kolisek, 2021, Borges et al., 2018, Lucas et al., 2018).

Probiotics may represent a complementary approach to address mineral deficits in individuals with poor mineral intake or absorption. By increasing the absorption and usage of minerals, probiotics could aid in mitigating or preventing these deficiencies, which can have meaningful health implications (Krausova et al., 2021, Morato-Martínez et al., 2020). For instance, probiotics have been considered for their potential role in improving the absorption of several minerals, like Ca, Se, Zn, Mg, K, etc. Adequate mineral absorption, particularly Ca and Mg, is essential to maintain optimal bone health in order to prevent health conditions like osteoporosis (Rizzoli and Biver, 2020, Suliburska et al., 2021). It was shown that probiotics could contribute to improving bone mineral density and lower the risk of fractures. This may be relevant in clinical trials with populations at risk of bone-related disorders, like postmenopausal women or older adults (Locantore et al., 2020, Rizzoli, 2019). In clinical settings where mineral supplementation or nutrient therapy is prescribed, probiotics may play a supportive role. The co-administration of probiotics with mineral supplements or the intake of mineral-enhanced probiotics could improve the absorption and utilization of the supplemented minerals, potentially optimizing the effectiveness of nutrient therapy and improving health status (Chen et al., 2022).

Furthermore, gastrointestinal disorders that affect nutrient absorption, like celiac disease, irritable bowel syndrome, or inflammatory bowel disease, may benefit from probiotic administration to improve mineral absorption. Probiotics can modulate GM, reduce inflammation, and improve gut barrier function, which may positively impact mineral absorption in these health conditions (Chen et al., 2022, Jurášková et al., 2022, Manzoor et al., 2022). Different probiotic strains may have varying effects on mineral absorption, and individual GM composition may influence the interactions between probiotics and minerals. Understanding the specific needs and characteristics of each individual can aid in tailoring probiotic interventions for optimizing mineral absorption (Bielik and Kolisek, 2021, Czajeczny et al., 2021).

There is a need for standardized protocols and guidelines for probiotic use in mineral deficiency. Identifying specific probiotic strains with demonstrated efficacy for different minerals and clarifying the mechanisms by which probiotics influence mineral absorption, utilization, and homeostasis would be valuable. Understanding these mechanisms would be helpful in developing targeted interventions (Barkhidarian et al., 2021, Nowicki and Pories, 2023). Also, determining the optimal dosages and duration of interventions for probiotic administration in mineral deficiencies is essential. Further studies are needed to investigate the dose–response link and the long-term effects of probiotics regarding mineral status (Barkhidarian et al., 2021). Large-scale, well-controlled clinical trials are warranted to evaluate the efficacy of probiotics in preventing and treating mineral deficiencies in different populations. Investigating potential interactions between probiotics and dietary factors, medications, or individual variations in GM composition is fundamental for optimizing probiotic interventions for mineral deficiencies (Bielik and Kolisek, 2021, Davis et al., 2020). Addressing these gaps will contribute to a clearer understanding of how probiotics can be effectively utilized in the prevention and treatment of mineral deficiencies.

Conclusions

The present review study highlights the vital importance of minerals in the human body, focusing on Ca, Se, Zn, Mg, and K. A comprehensive examination investigates the complex involvement of GM in absorbing these essential minerals, revealing the critical role these microscopic organisms play. In addition, this research explores the potential impact of probiotics, offering promising approaches for improving mineral absorption. Dedicated sections focusing on probiotics and their link to individual minerals provide valuable insights into the potential benefits of incorporating these beneficial bacteria into our dietary habits. This study contributes to understanding the complex interaction between GM, probiotics, and mineral absorption, increasing the knowledge of how these interrelated factors can influence human health and nutrition. These insights hold great promise for developing strategies that could positively impact human health by addressing potential mineral deficiencies and promoting optimal nutritional outcomes. Ultimately, this review paper opens the way for future exploration and research in this exciting field, encouraging further investigation into the complex mechanisms underlying mineral absorption and the potential for harnessing the ability of probiotics to improve overall health and vitality.

Credit authorship contribution statement

Rodica-Anita Varvara: Conceptualization, Writing – original draft, Writing – review & editing. Dan Cristian Vodnar: Conceptualization, Supervision, Validation, Visualization, Writing – review & editing.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Acknowledgements

This research was funded by the Ministry of Research, Development, and Innovation, and developed with the support of UEFISCDI (Project No. 14 PFE-2022-2024).

Contributor Information

Rodica-Anita Varvara, Email: rodica-anita.varvara@student.usamvcluj.ro.

Dan Cristian Vodnar, Email: dan.vodnar@usamvcluj.ro.

Data availability

No data was used for the research described in the article.

References

  1. Ai T., Hao L., Shang L., Wang L., Li B., Li J. Konjac Oligosaccharides Modulate the Gut Environment and Promote Bone Health in Calcium-Deficient Mice. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 2021;69(15):4412–4422. doi: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c07839. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  2. Aljewicz M., Cichosz G. The effect of probiotic Lactobacillus rhamnosus HN001 on the invitro availability of minerals from cheeses and cheese-like products. Lwt. 2015;60(2):841–847. doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2014.09.052. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  3. Ashaolu T.J. Immune boosting functional foods and their mechanisms: A critical evaluation of probiotics and prebiotics. Biomedicine and Pharmacotherapy. 2020;130 doi: 10.1016/j.biopha.2020.110625. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  4. Baaij, J. H. F. De, Hoenderop, J. G. J., Bindels, R. J. M. (2023). Magnesium in man : implications for health and disease magnesium in cellular physiology. 1920(113), 1–46. Doi: 10.1152/physrev.00012.2014.
  5. Ballan, R., Battistini, C., Xavier-Santos, D., & Saad, S. M. I. (2020). Interactions of probiotics and prebiotics with the gut microbiota. In Progress in Molecular Biology and Translational Science (1st ed., Vol. 171). Elsevier Inc. Doi: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2020.03.008. [DOI] [PubMed]
  6. Ballini A., Gnoni A., Vito D.D.E., Dipalma G., Cantore S., Gargiulo Isacco C., Saini R., Santacroce L., Topi S., Scarano A., Scacco S., Inchingolo F. Effect of probiotics on the occurrence of nutrition absorption capacities in healthy children: A randomized double-blinded placebo-controlled pilot study. European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences. 2019;23(19):8645–8657. doi: 10.26355/eurrev_201910_19182. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Bambling M., Edwards S.C., Hall S., Vitetta L. A combination of probiotics and magnesium orotate attenuate depression in a small SSRI resistant cohort: An intestinal anti-inflammatory response is suggested. Inflammopharmacology. 2017;25(2):271–274. doi: 10.1007/s10787-017-0311-x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Barchielli G., Capperucci A., Tanini D. The Role of Selenium in Pathologies: An Updated Review. Antioxidants. 2022;11(2) doi: 10.3390/antiox11020251. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  9. Barkhidarian B., Roldos L., Iskandar M.M., Saedisomeolia A., Kubow S. Systematic review probiotic supplementation and micronutrient status in healthy subjects: A systematic review of clinical trials. Nutrients. 2021;13(9):1–20. doi: 10.3390/nu13093001. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  10. Behera J., Ison J., Tyagi S.C., Tyagi N. The role of gut microbiota in bone homeostasis. Bone. 2020;135(January) doi: 10.1016/j.bone.2020.115317. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  11. Bielik V., Kolisek M. Bioaccessibility and bioavailability of minerals in relation to a healthy gut microbiome. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2021;22(13) doi: 10.3390/ijms22136803. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  12. Borges N.A., Carmo F.L., Stockler-Pinto M.B., de Brito J.S., Dolenga C.J., Ferreira D.C., Nakao L.S., Rosado A., Fouque D., Mafra D. Probiotic Supplementation in Chronic Kidney Disease: A Double-blind, Randomized, Placebo-controlled Trial. Journal of Renal Nutrition. 2018;28(1):28–36. doi: 10.1053/j.jrn.2017.06.010. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  13. Cao X., Tang L., Zeng Z., Wang B., Zhou Y., Wang Q., Zou P., Li W. Effects of Probiotics BaSC06 on Intestinal Digestion and Absorption, Antioxidant Capacity, Microbiota Composition, and Macrophage Polarization in Pigs for Fattening. Frontiers in Veterinary Science. 2020;7(November):1–16. doi: 10.3389/fvets.2020.570593. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  14. Capcarova M., Hascik P., Kolesarova A., Kacaniova M., Mihok M., Pal G. The effect of selected microbial strains on internal milieu of broiler chickens after peroral administration. Research in Veterinary Science. 2011;91(1):132–137. doi: 10.1016/j.rvsc.2010.07.022. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  15. Chen P., Xu T., Zhang C., Tong X., Shaukat A., He Y., Liu K., Huang S. Effects of Probiotics and Gut Microbiota on Bone Metabolism in Chickens: A Review. Metabolites. 2022;12(10) doi: 10.3390/metabo12101000. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  16. Clase C.M., Carrero J.J., Ellison D.H., Grams M.E., Hemmelgarn B.R., Jardine M.J.…Wingo C.S. Potassium homeostasis and management of dyskalemia in kidney diseases: Conclusions from a Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Controversies Conference. Kidney International. 2020;97(1):42–61. doi: 10.1016/j.kint.2019.09.018. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  17. Cornes R., Sintes C., Peña A., Albin S., O’Brien K.O., Abrams S.A., Donangelo C.M. Daily Intake of a Functional Synbiotic Yogurt Increases Calcium Absorption in Young Adult Women. Journal of Nutrition. 2022;152(7):1647–1654. doi: 10.1093/jn/nxac088. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Cristofori F., Dargenio V.N., Dargenio C., Miniello V.L., Barone M., Francavilla R. Anti-Inflammatory and Immunomodulatory Effects of Probiotics in Gut Inflammation: A Door to the Body. Frontiers in Immunology. 2021;12(February):1–21. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.578386. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  19. Czajeczny D., Kabzińska-Milewska K., Wójciak R.W. Bifidobacterium Lactis Bs01 and Lactobacillus Acidophilus La02 Supplementation May Change the Mineral Balance in Healthy Young Women. Journal of Elementology. 2021;26(4):849–859. doi: 10.5601/JELEM.2021.26.1.2121. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  20. D’Amelio P., Sassi F. Gut Microbiota, Immune System, and Bone. Calcified Tissue International. 2018;102(4):415–425. doi: 10.1007/s00223-017-0331-y. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  21. A.l. Dafalla K.A.A. Razig N.A. Elrofaei Effect of Types of Probiotic Bacteria on Physiochemical Properties of Sudanese White Soft Cheese American Academic Scientific Research Journal for Engineering, Technology, and Sciences 78 1 2021 83 97 https://www.asrjetsjournal.org/index.php/American_Scientific_Journal/article/view/6756.
  22. Dario P.-C., Gines L., Pedro A., Gaspar R. Bioavailability of calcium, magnesium and phosphorus in rats fed probiotic, prebiotic and synbiotic powder follow-up infant formulas and their effect on physiological and nutritional parameters. Revista de Fitoterapia. 2013;13(2):125–135. doi: 10.1002/jsfa. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  23. Davis E.C., Dinsmoor A.M., Wang M., Donovan S.M. Microbiome Composition in Pediatric Populations from Birth to Adolescence: Impact of Diet and Prebiotic and Probiotic Interventions. Digestive Diseases and Sciences. 2020;65(3):706–722. doi: 10.1007/s10620-020-06092-x. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  24. Dimidi E., Christodoulides S., Scott S.M., Whelan K. Mechanisms of action of probiotics and the gastrointestinal microbiota on gut motility and constipation. Advances in Nutrition. 2017;8(3):484–494. doi: 10.3945/an.116.014407. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  25. Duttaroy, A. K. (2021). Gut microbiota on human health and disease. Evidence-Based Nutrition and Clinical Evidence of Bioactive Foods in Human Health and Disease, 6(179), 269–281. Doi: 10.1016/b978-0-12-822405-2.00006-2.
  26. El-Sayed A.A., Mousa S.A. Effects of administration of probiotic on body growth and hematobiochemical profile in growing Barki lambs. Comparative Clinical Pathology. 2019;29(1):297–303. doi: 10.1007/s00580-019-03057-z. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  27. Fardet A. New hypotheses for the health-protective mechanisms of whole-grain cereals: What is beyond fibre? Nutrition Research Reviews. 2010;23(1):65–134. doi: 10.1017/S0954422410000041. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  28. Ferreira R.L.U., Sena-Evangelista K.C.M., de Azevedo E.P., Pinheiro F.I., Cobucci R.N., Pedrosa L.F.C. Selenium in Human Health and Gut Microflora: Bioavailability of Selenocompounds and Relationship With Diseases. Frontiers Nutrition. 2021;8(June) doi: 10.3389/fnut.2021.685317. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  29. García-Legorreta A., Soriano-Pérez L.A., Flores-Buendía A.M., Medina-Campos O.N., Noriega L.G., Granados-Portillo O., Nambo-Venegas R., Tovar A.R., Mendoza-Vargas A., Barrera-Oviedo D., Pedraza-Chaverri J., Palacios-González B. Effect of dietary magnesium content on intestinal microbiota of rats. Nutrients. 2020;12(9):1–11. doi: 10.3390/nu12092889. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  30. Gholami A., Dabbaghmanesh M.H., Ghasemi Y., Koohpeyma F., Talezadeh P., Montazeri-Najafabady N. The ameliorative role of specific probiotic combinations on bone loss in the ovariectomized rat model. BMC Complementary Medicine and Therapies. 2022;22(1):1–11. doi: 10.1186/s12906-022-03713-y. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  31. Huang W., Ma X., Chen Y., Zheng J., Li H., Nizhamu A., Hong Q., Guo X. Dietary Magnesium Intake Modifies the Association Between Vitamin D and Systolic Blood Pressure: Results From NHANES 2007–2014. Frontiers in Nutrition. 2022;9(February):1–8. doi: 10.3389/fnut.2022.829857. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  32. Ibrahim N.S., Muhamad A.S., Chen C.K., Ooi F.K. Effects of Probiotics Consumption and Resistance Exercise on Bone Metabolism Markers in Physically Inactive Young Males. Malaysian Journal of Sport Science and Recreation (MJSSR) 2022;18(1):92. doi: 10.24191/mjssr.v18i1.17643. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  33. Israr B., Frazier R.A., Gordon M.H. Effects of phytate and minerals on the bioavailability of oxalate from food. Food Chemistry. 2013;141(3):1690–1693. doi: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.04.130. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  34. Jagan M., Syed A.A., Ranvir S., Suman K., Rajan S., Sudhir Kumar T., Pradip B., Hariom Y. BIOAVAILABILITY OF BIOTRANSFORMED ZINC ENRICHED DAHI IN WISTAR RATS. International Journal of Probiotics Prebiotics. 2018;13(2–3):45–54. [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  35. Jurášková D., Ribeiro S.C., Silva C.C.G. Exopolysaccharides Produced by Lactic Acid Bacteria: From Biosynthesis to Health-Promoting Properties. Foods. 2022;11(2) doi: 10.3390/foods11020156. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  36. Kang S., Li R., Jin H., You H.J., Ji G.E. Effects of selenium- and zinc-enriched lactobacillus plantarum sezi on antioxidant capacities and gut microbiome in an icr mouse model. Antioxidants. 2020;9(10):1–14. doi: 10.3390/antiox9101028. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  37. Kanwar A., Sharma A. A review on role of zinc as a potent immunity boosting agent. Materials Today: Proceedings. 2022;68:880–885. doi: 10.1016/j.matpr.2022.06.423. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  38. Katarzyna S., Joanna S. Association between the gut microbiota and mineral metabolism. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture. 2017;28(3):303–325. doi: 10.1002/j. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  39. Khattar V., Wang L., Peng J.B. Calcium selective channel TRPV6: Structure, function, and implications in health and disease. Gene. 2022;817(January) doi: 10.1016/j.gene.2022.146192. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  40. Kieliszek M., Bano I. Selenium As an Important Factor in Various Disease States-a Review. EXCLI Journal. 2022;21:948–966. doi: 10.17179/excli2022-5137. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  41. Kodama H., Tanaka M., Naito Y., Katayama K., Moriyama M. Japan’s practical guidelines for zinc deficiency with a particular focus on taste disorders, inflammatory bowel disease, and liver cirrhosis. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 2020;21(8):1–16. doi: 10.3390/ijms21082941. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  42. Krausova G., Kana A., Vecka M., Hyrslova I., Stankova B., Kantorova V., Mrvikova I., Huttl M., Malinska H. In vivo bioavailability of selenium in selenium-enriched streptococcus thermophilus and enterococcus faecium in cd igs rats. Antioxidants. 2021;10(3):1–20. doi: 10.3390/antiox10030463. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  43. Kruger M.C., Fear A., Chua W.H., Plimmer G.G., Schollum L.M. The effect of Lactobacillus rhamnosus HN001 on mineral absorption and bone health in growing male and ovariectomised female rats. Dairy Science and Technology. 2009;89(3–4):219–231. doi: 10.1051/dst/2009012. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  44. Leenders, N. H. J., & Vervloet, M. G. (2019). Magnesium: A Magic Bullet for Cardiovascular Disease in Chronic Kidney Disease? 1–22. https://doi.org/10.3390/nu11020455. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
  45. Li C., Pi G., Li F. The Role of Intestinal Flora in the Regulation of Bone Homeostasis. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology. 2021;11(March):1–16. doi: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.579323. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  46. Liu, F., Kong, A., Fu, P., Cao, Q. qin, Tao, K. sheng, Liu, D. yi, Wang, X. bing, Tong, Z. xi, Rehman, M. U., & Huang, S. cheng. (2021). Lactobacillus rhamnosus JYLR-005 Prevents Thiram-Induced Tibial Dyschondroplasia by Enhancing Bone-Related Growth Performance in Chickens. Probiotics and Antimicrobial Proteins, 13(1), 19–31. Doi: 10.1007/s12602-020-09670-7. [DOI] [PubMed]
  47. Locantore P., Del Gatto V., Gelli S., Paragliola R.M., Pontecorvi A. The Interplay between Immune System and Microbiota in Osteoporosis. Mediators of Inflammation. 2020;2020 doi: 10.1155/2020/3686749. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  48. Louzada, M. J. Q., Bremer-Neto, H., Tribst, M. F., Magalhães, L. R., Silva, R. A., Caetano, H. R. D. S., de Oliveira, W. G. A., Rufino, M. N., Keller, R., & Sanches, O. de C. (2019). Mineral composition, histomorphometry, and bone biomechanical properties are improved with probiotic, prebiotic, and symbiotic supplementation in rats chronically exposed to passive smoking: A randomized pre-clinical study. Ciencia Rural, 49(5), 1–11. Doi: 10.1590/0103-8478cr20180695.
  49. Lucas S., Omata Y., Hofmann J., Böttcher M., Iljazovic A., Sarter K., Albrecht O., Schulz O., Krishnacoumar B., Krönke G., Herrmann M., Mougiakakos D., Strowig T., Schett G., Zaiss M.M. Short-chain fatty acids regulate systemic bone mass and protect from pathological bone loss. Nature Communications. 2018;9(1):1–10. doi: 10.1038/s41467-017-02490-4. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  50. Luongo F., Pietropaolo G., Gautier M., Dhennin-Duthille I., Ouadid-Ahidouch H., Wolf F.I., Trapani V. TRPM6 is essential for magnesium uptake and epithelial cell function in the colon. Nutrients. 2018;10(6):1–12. doi: 10.3390/nu10060784. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  51. Maares M., Keil C., Pallasdies L., Schmacht M., Senz M., Nissen J., Kieserling H., Drusch S., Haase H. Zinc availability from zinc-enriched yeast studied with an in vitro digestion/Caco-2 cell culture model. Journal of Trace Elements in Medicine and Biology. 2022;71(January) doi: 10.1016/j.jtemb.2022.126934. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  52. Malyar R.M., Li H., Liu D., Abdulrahim Y., Farid R.A., Gan F., Ali W., Enayatullah H., Banuree S.A.H., Huang K., Chen X. Selenium/Zinc-Enriched probiotics improve serum enzyme activity, antioxidant ability, inflammatory factors and related gene expression of Wistar rats inflated under heat stress. Life Sciences. 2020;248(February) doi: 10.1016/j.lfs.2020.117464. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  53. Manzoor S., Wani S.M., Ahmad Mir S., Rizwan D. Role of probiotics and prebiotics in mitigation of different diseases. Nutrition. 2022;96 doi: 10.1016/j.nut.2022.111602. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  54. Markowiak-Kopeć P., Śliżewska K. The effect of probiotics on the production of short-chain fatty acids by human intestinal microbiome. Nutrients. 2020;12(4) doi: 10.3390/nu12041107. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  55. Meng Y., Liang Z., Yi M., Tan Y., Li Z., Du P., Li A., Li C., Liu L. Enrichment of zinc in Lactobacillus plantarum DNZ-4: Impact on its characteristics, metabolites and antioxidant activity. Lwt. 2022;153(April 2021) doi: 10.1016/j.lwt.2021.112462. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  56. Minich W.B. Selenium Metabolism and Biosynthesis of Selenoproteins in the Human Body. Biochemistry (Moscow) 2022;87:S168–S177. doi: 10.1134/S0006297922140139. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  57. Mitrea L., Nemeş S.A., Szabo K., Teleky B.E., Vodnar D.C. Guts Imbalance Imbalances the Brain: A Review of Gut Microbiota Association With Neurological and Psychiatric Disorders. Frontiers in Medicine. 2022;9(March):1–21. doi: 10.3389/fmed.2022.813204. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  58. Mm, S., Js, N., M, B. C., Ap, M., Mj, F., F, M., Mj, F., D, S., J, P., V, G., E, L., A, V., P, F., & D, C. (2022). Higher magnesium levels are associated with better glycaemic control and diabetes remission post-bariatric surgery. BMC Endocrine Disorders, 22(1), 303. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12902-022-01210-4. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
  59. Mogna L., Nicola S., Pane M., Lorenzini P., Strozzi G., Mogna G. Selenium and Zinc Internalized by Lactobacillus buchneri Lb26 (DSM 16341) and Bifidobacterium lactis Bb1 (DSM 17850) Journal of Clinical Gastroenterology. 2012;46(October):S41–S45. doi: 10.1097/mcg.0b013e318268861d. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  60. Mohajeri M.H., Brummer R.J.M., Rastall R.A., Weersma R.K., Harmsen H.J.M., Faas M., Eggersdorfer M. The role of the microbiome for human health: From basic science to clinical applications. European Journal of Nutrition. 2018;57(1):1–14. doi: 10.1007/s00394-018-1703-4. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  61. Mohammad Malyar R., Li H., Enayatullah H., Hou L., Ahmad Farid R., Liu D., Akhter Bhat J., Miao J., Gan F., Huang K., Chen X. Zinc-enriched probiotics enhanced growth performance, antioxidant status, immune function, gene expression, and morphological characteristics of Wistar rats raised under high ambient temperature. 3 Biotech. 2019;9(8):1–12. doi: 10.1007/s13205-019-1819-0. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  62. Morato-Martínez M., López-Plaza B., Santurino C., Palma-Milla S., Gómez-Candela C. A dairy product to reconstitute enriched with bioactive nutrients stops bone loss in high-risk menopausal women without pharmacological treatment. Nutrients. 2020;12(8):1–15. doi: 10.3390/nu12082203. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  63. Nath A., Molnár M.A., Csighy A., Kőszegi K., Galambos I., Huszár K.P., Koris A., Vatai G. Biological activities of lactose-based prebiotics and symbiosis with probiotics on controlling osteoporosis, blood-lipid and glucose levels. Medicina (Lithuania) 2018;54(6):1–28. doi: 10.3390/medicina54060098. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  64. Nemes S.A., Călinoiu L.F., Dulf F.V., Fărcas A.C., Vodnar D.C. Integrated Technology for Cereal Bran Valorization: Perspectives for a Sustainable Industrial Approach. Antioxidants. 2022;11(11):1–27. doi: 10.3390/antiox11112159. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  65. Niranjan, D., Sridhar, N. B., Chandra, U. S., Manjunatha, S. S., Borthakur, A., Vinuta, M. H., & Mohan, B. R. (2023). Recent perspectives of growth promoters in livestock : an overview. 53–64.
  66. Nishito Y., Kambe T. Absorption mechanisms of iron, copper, and zinc: An overview. Journal of Nutritional Science and Vitaminology. 2018;64(1):1–7. doi: 10.3177/jnsv.64.1. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  67. Noland, D., Drisko, J. A., & Wagner, L. (2020). Integrative and functional medical nutrition therapy: principles and practices.
  68. Noonan S.C. Oxalate content of foods and its effect on humans. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 1999;8(1):64–74. doi: 10.1046/j.1440-6047.1999.00038.x. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  69. Nowicki K.N., Pories W.J. Bacteria with potential: Improving outcomes through probiotic use following Roux-en-Y gastric bypass. Clinical Obesity. 2023;13(1):1–7. doi: 10.1111/cob.12552. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  70. Pambianchi E., Pecorelli A., Valacchi G. Gastrointestinal tissue as a “new” target of pollution exposure. IUBMB Life. 2022;74(1):62–73. doi: 10.1002/iub.2530. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  71. Peredo-Lovillo A., Romero-Luna H.E., Jiménez-Fernández M. Health promoting microbial metabolites produced by gut microbiota after prebiotics metabolism. Food Research International. 2020;136 doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109473. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  72. Priyodip P., Prakash P.Y., Balaji S. Phytases of Probiotic Bacteria: Characteristics and Beneficial Aspects. Indian Journal of Microbiology. 2017;57(2):148–154. doi: 10.1007/s12088-017-0647-3. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  73. Pyndt Jørgensen B., Winther G., Kihl P., Nielsen D.S., Wegener G., Hansen A.K., Sørensen D.B. Dietary magnesium deficiency affects gut microbiota and anxiety-like behaviour in C57BL/6N mice. Acta Neuropsychiatrica. 2015;27(5):307–311. doi: 10.1017/neu.2015.10. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  74. Rabetafika, H. N., Ebenso, B., & Razafindralambo, H. L. (2023). Probiotics as Antibiotic Alternatives for Human and Animal Applications. 561–581.
  75. Raveschot, C., Coutte, F., Frémont, M., Vaeremans, M., Dugersuren, J., Demberel, S., Drider, D., Dhulster, P., Flahaut, C., & Cudennec, B. (2020). Probiotic Lactobacillus strains from Mongolia improve calcium transport and uptake by intestinal cells in vitro. Food Research International, 133(November 2019), 109201. Doi: 10.1016/j.foodres.2020.109201. [DOI] [PubMed]
  76. Rizzoli R. Nutritional influence on bone: Role of gut microbiota. Aging Clinical and Experimental Research. 2019;31(6):743–751. doi: 10.1007/s40520-019-01131-8. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  77. Rizzoli R., Biver E. Are Probiotics the New Calcium and Vitamin D for Bone Health? Current Osteoporosis Reports. 2020;18(3):273–284. doi: 10.1007/s11914-020-00591-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  78. Sadeek F. Effect of Arabic Gum as Prebiotics and Lactobacillus casei Shirota (LcS) as Probiotic on Oxidative Stress and Renal Function in Adenine-Induced Chronic Renal Failure in Rats. European Journal of Nutrition & Food Safety. 2018;8(1):29–46. doi: 10.9734/ejnfs/2018/36022. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  79. Scholz-Ahrens K.E., Ade P., Marten B., Weber P., Timm W., Açil Y., Glüer C.C., Schrezenmeir J. Prebiotics, probiotics, and synbiotics affect mineral absorption, bone mineral content, and bone structure. Journal of Nutrition. 2007;137(3) doi: 10.1093/jn/137.3.838s. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  80. Sehrawat, N., Yadav, M., Singh, M., Kumar, V., Sharma, V. R., & Sharma, A. K. (2021). Probiotics in microbiome ecological balance providing a therapeutic window against cancer. Seminars in Cancer Biology, 70(June 2020), 24–36. Doi: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2020.06.009. [DOI] [PubMed]
  81. Skrypnik K., Bogdański P., Schmidt M., Suliburska J. The Effect of Multispecies Probiotic Supplementation on Iron Status in Rats. Biological Trace Element Research. 2019;192(2):234–243. doi: 10.1007/s12011-019-1658-1. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  82. Śliżewska K., Markowiak-Kopeć P., Śliżewska W. The role of probiotics in cancer prevention. Cancers. 2021;13(1):1–22. doi: 10.3390/cancers13010020. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  83. Steinbrenner H., Duntas L.H., Rayman M.P. The role of selenium in type-2 diabetes mellitus and its metabolic comorbidities. Redox Biology. 2022;50(January) doi: 10.1016/j.redox.2022.102236. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  84. Stuparu-Cretu M., Braniste G., Necula G.A., Stanciu S., Stoica D., Stoica M. Metal Oxide Nanoparticles in Food Packaging and Their Influence on Human Health. Foods. 2023;12(9):1–18. doi: 10.3390/foods12091882. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  85. Suliburska J., Harahap I.A., Skrypnik K., Bogdański P. The impact of multispecies probiotics on calcium and magnesium status in healthy male rats. Nutrients. 2021;13(10):1–8. doi: 10.3390/nu13103513. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  86. Tako, E., Glahn, R. P., Welch, R. M., Lei, X., Yasuda, K., & Miller, D. D. (2008). Dietary inulin affects the expression of intestinal enterocyte iron transporters , receptors and storage protein and alters the microbiota in the pig intestine. 472–480. Doi: 10.1017/S0007114507825128. [DOI] [PubMed]
  87. Trapani V., Rosanoff A., Baniasadi S., Barbagallo M., Castiglioni S., Guerrero-Romero F., Iotti S., Mazur A., Micke O., Pourdowlat G., Scarpati G., Wolf F.I., Maier J.A. The relevance of magnesium homeostasis in COVID-19. European Journal of Nutrition. 2022;61(2):625–636. doi: 10.1007/s00394-021-02704-y. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  88. Turroni, S., Magnani, M., KC, P., Lesnik, P., Vidal, H., & Heer, M. (2020). Gut Microbiome and Space Travelers’ Health: State of the Art and Possible Pro/Prebiotic Strategies for Long-Term Space Missions. Frontiers in Physiology, 11(September), 1–16. Doi: 10.3389/fphys.2020.553929. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed]
  89. Tyagi A.M., Yu M., Darby T.M., Vaccaro C., Li J.Y., Owens J.A., Hsu E., Adams J., Weitzmann M.N., Jones R.M., Pacifici R. The Microbial Metabolite Butyrate Stimulates Bone Formation via T Regulatory Cell-Mediated Regulation of WNT10B Expression. Immunity. 2018;49(6):1116–1131.e7. doi: 10.1016/j.immuni.2018.10.013. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  90. Weyh C., Krüger K., Peeling P., Castell L. The Role of Minerals in the Optimal Functioning of the Immune System. Nutrients. 2022;14(3):1–15. doi: 10.3390/nu14030644. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  91. Whisner C.M., Martin B.R., Nakatsu C.H., Story J.A., MacDonald-Clarke C.J., McCabe L.D., McCabe G.P., Weaver C.M. Soluble corn fiber increases calcium absorption associated with shifts in the gut microbiome: A randomized dose-response trial in free-living pubertal females. Journal of Nutrition. 2016;146(7):1298–1306. doi: 10.3945/jn.115.227256. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  92. Xie W., Han Y., Li F., Gu X., Su D., Yu W., Li Z., Xiao J. Neuropeptide Y1 Receptor Antagonist Alters Gut Microbiota and Alleviates the Ovariectomy-Induced Osteoporosis in Rats. Calcified Tissue International. 2020;106(4):444–454. doi: 10.1007/s00223-019-00647-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  93. Yan J., Charles J.F. Gut Microbiome and Bone: To Build, Destroy, or Both? Current Osteoporosis Reports. 2017;15(4):376–384. doi: 10.1007/s11914-017-0382-z. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  94. Yang J., Yang H. Recent development in Se-enriched yeast, lactic acid bacteria and bifidobacteria. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 2023;63(3):411–425. doi: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1948818. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  95. Yu L., Yu Y., Xiao Y., Tian F., Narbad A., Zhai Q., Chen W. Lead-induced gut injuries and the dietary protective strategies: A review. Journal of Functional Foods. 2021;83 doi: 10.1016/j.jff.2021.104528. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  96. Zhao D., Zhu H., Gao F., Qian Z., Mao W., Yin Y., Tan J., Chen D. Antidiabetic effects of selenium-enriched: Bifidobacterium longum DD98 in type 2 diabetes model of mice. Food and Function. 2020;11(7):6528–6541. doi: 10.1039/d0fo00180e. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  97. Zhou D., Zhao Y., Li J., Ravichandran V., Wang L., Huang Q., Chen C., Ni H., Yin J. Effects of Phytic Acid-Degrading Bacteria on Mineral Element Content in Mice. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2021;12(November):1–10. doi: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.753195. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  98. Zhou Y., Zhu H., Qi Y., Wu C., Zhang J., Shao L., Tan J., Chen D. Absorption and Distribution of Selenium Following Oral Administration of Selenium-Enriched Bifidobacterium longum DD98, Selenized Yeast, or Sodium Selenite in Rats. Biological Trace Element Research. 2020;197(2):599–605. doi: 10.1007/s12011-019-02011-y. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  99. Zhu H., Zhou Y., Qi Y., Ji R., Zhang J., Qian Z., Wu C., Tan J., Shao L., Chen D. Preparation and characterization of selenium enriched-: Bifidobacterium longum DD98, and its repairing effects on antibiotic-induced intestinal dysbacteriosis in mice. Food and Function. 2019;10(8):4975–4984. doi: 10.1039/c9fo00960d. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  100. Zoroddu M.A., Aaseth J., Crisponi G., Medici S., Peana M., Nurchi V.M. The essential metals for humans: A brief overview. Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry. 2019;195(February):120–129. doi: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2019.03.013. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Data Availability Statement

No data was used for the research described in the article.

Articles from Food Chemistry: X are provided here courtesy of Elsevier

RESOURCES