A novel approach to increase calcium and fiber content in pasta using kadamb fruit (Neolamarckia cadamba) powder and study of functional and structural characteristics

Abstract

Kadamb is a unique and underutilized fruit having rich nutritional profile. The utilization of kadamb fruit in value addition is very limited. In this study, pasta was made using kadamb fruit powder (KFP). The effect of fortification of KFP on the quality parameters (color, solid loss, percent expansion, hardness, bulk density, and overall acceptability) of pasta was studied. Pasta was prepared using semolina as the base ingredient, and various proportions of KFP (ranging from 0 to 20%) were added for fortification. Dietary fiber and calcium contents of dry pasta were increased from 5.21 ± 0.02 to 15.36 ± 0.02 and 17.57 ± 0.15 to 37.97 ± 0.03, respectively. As the proportion of KFP increased, the cooking time, hardness, and percent solid loss of the cooked pasta also increased. The highest values for overall acceptability, hardness, cooking solid loss, and bulk density were achieved with 10% KFP and 90% semolina were 7.93 ± 0.41, 19.92 ± 0.21 N, 6.30 ± 0.46%, and 331.67 ± 9.60 kg/m³ respectively. Percent expansion of the pasta was noted to be around 98.33 ± 6.5%. The optimal proportion of KFP was found to be 10% for achieving the best overall quality attributes. FTIR (Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy) and SEM (scanning electron microscopy) analyses were conducted on the pasta, confirming the presence of functional groups and revealing structural changes due to fiber content of KFP. KFP can be used to create functional and nutritious food products, and further research could explore its application in other food formulations as well.

Introduction

An anticipated potential food and nutrition scarcity is knocking the door of our universe due to unprecedented growth of human population. India is going to face daunting challenge of providing food for its 142.68 crore citizens. Due to the apathetic exploitation of resources, it triggers the need to look for alternatives, thus exploring the unexplored and utilizing the underutilized plant species (Salvi and Katewa 2016). Kadamb (Neolamarckia cadamba) is an important tree. Its fruit has carbohydrates, protein, fat, vitamins, fibers, and minerals. It is considered an underutilized fruit due to scarce research on its value addition (Panda et al. 2022). Few studies have been done on it because it is a crop that is underutilized and is not widely known. It has been demonstrated to be a very good source of nutraceuticals and antioxidants with significant potential for usage in food and medicine (Pandey et al. 2018). The ease, affordability, and taste of pasta products are making them more and more common in today’s lifestyle. The enhancement of these types of foods has been prompted by the swift growth of small catering businesses and the rising popularity of fast food (Kaur et al. 2012). Production and consumption of pasta products mainly depend on the culinary traditions within a society and region of the world (Moscicki 2011). The impact of processing techniques on the development of pasta, quality characteristics (color, texture, cooking characteristics, etc.), and the bioavailability of phytochemicals are thus need attention. Fortified pasta is made by the incorporation of berry (Bustos et al. 2019), gac fruit powder (Chusak et al. 2020), soy (Lamacchia et al. 2010), marine foods (Kadam & Prabhasankar 2010), wakame and edible Japanese seaweed (Prabhasankar et al. 2009), camachile fruit (Saha et al. 2021) and Glucagel, inulin GR or inulin HPX, oat bran, psyllium, (Foschia et al. 2015) with semolina. According to Dhingra et al. (2012), dietary fiber is a beneficial food component because it contains non-starch polysaccharides such as cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin, mucilage, and gums that are difficult for humans and the majority of other animals to digest by the alimentary enzymes. The kadamb fruit contains highest amounts of dietary fiber, as well as notable amounts of numerous other functional elements with important health-promoting qualities (Pandey et al. 2018). The dietary fiber in the kadamb fruit powder (KFP) was 50.86 g/100 g. The fruit powder may be used as a functional ingredient in a range of food products due to its high dietary fiber content. Dietary fiber can absorb glucose and cholesterol, which reduces the risk of obesity, diabetes, gastrointestinal disorders, and cancer (He et al. 2022). It also possesses additional functional qualities that can be used in product creation, such as capacities for absorption of water, and oil, and swelling properties (Keskin et al. 2022).

The KFP was rich in calcium content with 347.74 mg per 100 g of sample. Worldwide, there is a high prevalence of low calcium intake, which leads to osteomalacia in adults and rickets in children. Foods enriched with calcium may help people consume more calcium. The kadamb fruit is a strong source of calcium ions and may be used to treat illnesses linked to calcium insufficiency (Palacios et al. 2021). This shows that the kadamb fruit is an excellent source of dietary fiber and calcium ions.

Durum wheat semolina is the most often used raw material in the making of pasta. It comprises 12 to 13% protein, 0.8 to 0.9% ash in dry mass, and 27% maximum extractable wet gluten (Moscicki 2011). The production process also involves the use of fruits, vegetables, legume seeds, vegetable oil, and additives to improve the taste and nutritional value of the pasta.

Extruding the pasta mixture at a cold temperature produces a variety of pasta products without distorting or heating the basic ingredients. Such pasta products have less functional properties and need considerable cooking time, unlike high-temperature extruded food products. In the conventional method, pasta is extruded at low temperatures (approx. 50 °C) and the extent of starch gelatinization does not exceed 50% after drying. Hence, traditional pasta is cooked before consumption. Pasta has a very poor nutritional value because it contains little dietary fiber and a substantial amount of protein. A lot of carbohydrates, protein, fat, vitamins, minerals, and high-fiber ingredients are added to pasta to improve its nutritional value and taste (Chalamaiah et al. 2013). Considering nutritional value of kadamb fruit, it can be fortified in pasta production.

The kadamb fruit powder would help to reduce the current problem of fiber, mineral, and protein-energy malnutrition (PEM) existing throughout the world. The present study was carried out to develop pasta by incorporating the KFP and further to establish the possibility of developing high-quality pasta by exploring the impact of KFP on pasta quality.

Materials and methods

Raw materials

The mature kadamb fruits used in the study were collected from kadamb trees located at the premises of the National Institute of Technology in Rourkela, Odisha, India. The specific geographical coordinates of the location are mentioned as an altitude of 219 m, a longitude of 84.54 E, and latitude of 22.12 N. The semolina used as the base ingredient for making the pasta was purchased from the local market in Rourkela, Odisha, India. KFP was prepared by drying the edible core portion of the raw fruit in a tray dryer at 45 °C for 12 h and grinding the dried parts. The particle size of dried fruit powder used in pasta preparation was 210 µm.

Functional properties of kadamb fruit powder

The functional properties of KFP such as water absorption capacity, oil absorption capacity, swelling capacity and solubility index of KFP were determined using standard procedures.

Swelling capacity (SC)

Fruit powder of 0.1 g was mixed with 10 ml distilled water and the mixture was kept in stirring at 60 ± 2 °C for 30 min. Later the mixture was centrifuged for 15 min at 272 g’ force. The weight of the precipitate was recorded and swelling capacity was determined using Eq. (1) (Jaddu et al. 2022a, b, c).

$$\mathrm{SC}=\frac{\mathrm{Weight}\mathrm{of}\mathrm{precipitate}(\mathrm{g})}{\mathrm{Weight}\mathrm{of}\mathrm{powder}\mathrm{in}\mathrm{dry}\mathrm{basis}(\mathrm{g})}$$ 1

Solubility index (SI)

A sample of 0.5 g was taken and 10 ml of distilled water was added to it. The solution was kept at 60 ± 2 °C for 30 min in a water bath without stirring. Then the solution was centrifuged for 10 min at 272 g’ force. The supernatant of 5 ml was taken, dried, and weighed. The solubility index was calculated by using Eq. (2) (Jaddu et al. 2022a, b, c).

$$\mathrm{SI}=\frac{\mathrm{Weight}\mathrm{of}\mathrm{the}\mathrm{soluble}\mathrm{matter}(\mathrm{g})}{\mathrm{Weight}\mathrm{of}\mathrm{sample}\mathrm{on}\mathrm{dry}\mathrm{basis}(\mathrm{g})}\times 2$$ 2

Water absorption capacity (WAC)

A powdered sample of 1 g was taken and 10 ml of distilled water was mixed with it. The solution was mixed properly and kept in incubation for 30 min at 30 ± 2 °C. Then, the mixture was centrifuged for 15 min at 956 g’ force. The water absorbed by the sample (g/g) was calculated using Eq. (3) (Ramashia et al. 2018).

$$\mathrm{WAC}=\frac{\mathrm{Weight}\mathrm{of}\mathrm{powder}\mathrm{bound}\mathrm{to}\mathrm{the}\mathrm{water}(\mathrm{g})}{\mathrm{Weight}\mathrm{of}\mathrm{sample}(\mathrm{g})}$$ 3

Oil absorption capacity (OAC)

A powdered sample of 1 g was taken and 10 ml of sunflower oil was mixed with it. The same process was followed as performed in water absorption capacity. The oil absorption capacity was calculated using Eq. (4) (Chandra et al. 2015).

$$\mathrm{OAC}=\frac{\mathrm{Weight}\mathrm{of}\mathrm{powder}\mathrm{bound}\mathrm{to}\mathrm{the}\mathrm{oil}(\mathrm{g})}{\mathrm{Weight}\mathrm{of}\mathrm{sample}(\mathrm{g})}$$ 4

Preparation of pasta

The pasta formulation was developed using a combination of semolina (100–80%) and Kadamb fruit powder (KFP) (0–20%). The traditional semolina base was substituted with varying proportions of Kadamb fruit powder to create composite mixtures containing 0%, 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% KFP. In order to achieve a target moisture content of approximately 25%, water was added in the mixture. The resultant mixture was thoroughly blended for 15 min to ensure a uniform feed mix. This blend was then allowed to rest at room temperature for a period of 10 min.

Subsequently, the mixture was processed through a pasta-making machine (Dolly; La Monforrina, Italy) employing a specific pressure and die orifice. The resulting pasta samples were subjected to drying in a tray dryer at 40 °C until reaching a moisture content of 12%, which is considered as safe storage moisture content. Once this moisture target was achieved, the pasta samples were appropriately cooled and then packed into LDPE pouches, which are commonly available packaging materials (Singh et al. 2004).

Quality characteristics of dry and cooked pasta

The bulk density, color, dietary fiber, calcium and iron of dry pasta and the percent expansion, cooking solid loss, hardness, and optimal cooking time of the cooked pasta were measured. The values were the average of three independent measurements.

Bulk density of dry pasta

In a 100 ml measuring cylinder, 20 g of raw pasta were weighed and placed. Following the measurement of the volume that pasta occupied, the bulk density was determined as per Eq. (5) (Ding et al. 2020 & Jaddu et al. 2022a, b, c)

$$\mathrm{Bulk}\mathrm{density}\left(\frac{\mathrm{kg}}{{\mathrm{m}}^3}\right)=\frac{\mathrm{Weight}\mathrm{of}\mathrm{pasta}}{\mathrm{Volume}\mathrm{occupied}\mathrm{by}\mathrm{pasta}}$$ 5

Color of dry pasta

A colorimeter (Hunter Lab, Virginia, USA) was used to analyze the dried pasta's color parameters. Three pasta samples of each treatment were used to analyze the L*, a*, and b* parameters of pasta. L* indicates lightness ranging from 0 (black) to 100 (white), likewise a* positive represents redness, negative confirms greenness, and b* positive (yellowness), b* negative (blueness). The following formulae were used to compute the chroma (C), hue angle (h), and browning index (BI) (Bansode et al. 2023a, b).

$$\mathrm{C}=\sqrt{(\mathrm{a}{\ast }^2+\mathrm{b}{\ast }^2)}$$ 6

$$\mathrm{h}\ast ={\mathit{tan}}^{-1}\left(\frac{\mathrm{b}\ast }{\mathrm{a}\ast }\right)$$ 7

$$\mathrm{BI}=\frac{100(\mathrm{X}-0.31)}{0.17}$$ 8

where,

$$\mathrm{X}=\frac{(\mathrm{a}\ast +1.75\mathrm{L}\ast )}{(5.645\mathrm{L}\ast +\mathrm{a}\ast -3.012\mathrm{b}\ast )}$$ 9

Dietary fiber of dry pasta

The dietary fiber content of dry pasta was determined by using AOAC method (2016).

Calcium and Iron of dry pasta

The calcium and iron content of dry pasta were determined by using the Inductively Coupled Plasma-Optical Emission Spectrometer (ICP-OES) method (Kiani et al. 2022).

Percent expansion of cooked pasta

In a measuring cylinder with 50 ml of oil, 10 g of pasta was added. The volume of the raw sample was calculated by the amount of oil layer displacement. (V₁). The sample was cooked for five minutes in boiling water. The cooked sample was moved to a measuring cylinder filled with oil, and its volume was recorded. (V₂). After cooking, the percentage expansion was computed as follows Eq. (10) (Bayram et al. 2004).

$$\mathrm{Percent}\mathrm{expansion}=\frac{V_2-V_1}{{\mathrm{V}}_1}\times 100$$ 10

Cooking solid loss of cooked pasta

200 ml of water was used to cook 10 g of pasta for 5 min. The cooked sample was taken out from the cooking medium, and the cooking liquid was drained into a volumetric flask with a capacity of 250 ml. The weight of the residue was then calculated by evaporating 10 ml of cooking water in a hot air oven (Bruneel et al. 2010; Singh et al. 2004). Solid loss during the cooking of pasta was calculated as per Eq. (11) (Badwaik et al. 2014).

$$\mathrm{Solid}\mathrm{loss}(\%)=\frac{\mathrm{Wt}.\mathrm{of}\mathrm{residue}\mathrm{x}\mathrm{vol}.\mathrm{of}\mathrm{cooking}\mathrm{water}}{\mathrm{Sample}\mathrm{wt}\mathrm{x}\mathrm{vol}.\mathrm{of}\mathrm{sample}\mathrm{taken}\mathrm{for}\mathrm{estimation}}\times 100$$ 11

Hardness of cooked pasta

After cooking, the hardness of the pasta was assessed. A texture analyzer (TA-XT2, Brookfield, USA) with a 10 kg load cell was used to measure it (force in compression). To cut cooked pasta, a TA7 plastic blade probe was utilized (pre-test speed of 1 mm/s, test speed of 1 mm/s, post-test speed of 1 mm/s) with a distance of 1 mm, and force of 2 N.

Optimal cooking time of cooked pasta

Optimal cooking time (OCT, min) was time taken to disappear the inner white portion of the pasta (AACC 2000).

Moisture content of cooked pasta

The moisture content of pasta was determined by using AOAC method 20^th edition (2016).

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)

The FTIR spectra were derived for pasta samples with attenuated total reflectance (ATR) using FTIR spectroscopy (Bruker, Alpha E FTIR, Germany). It is a non-destructive rapid method of detecting a range of functional groups. The spectra were recorded in absorbance (%) at wavelength ranges from 500 to 4000 cm⁻¹ with 32 scans per sample (Kamble et al. 2019).

Scanning electron microscope (SEM) analysis of pasta samples

Scanning electron microscopy (JEOL, JSM-6480L, Oxford Instruments, Japan) was used to analyse the microstructure of control and fortified pasta samples. It was operated at 20 kV acceleration voltage and a magnification of 1000 x (Jaddu et al. 2022a, b, c).

Sensory evaluation

A semi-trained panel of 30 people conducted sensory evaluations of cooked pasta using nine-point hedonic scale. The parameters such as color, texture, taste and overall acceptance of the pasta were analysed (Jaddu et al. 2023). The panelists had provided potable water to wash their palates in between sampling.

Statistical analysis

All the reported data was analysed by replicate values. The significant variation among the treatments were analysed by Duncan’s multiple range test (95% confidence level) using IBM SPSS 20.0 software.

Results and discussion

Functional properties of kadamb fruit powder

The functional properties of KFP such as solubility index, water absorption, swelling capacity, and oil absorption capacity were 0.126, 2.699, 4.937, and 1.707 g/g respectively. High swelling capacity and water absorption indicate that the materials tested might increase the viscosity and form gels. The property of oil absorption capacity helps to improve the binding of the structure and enhance flavour retention. The results were in good agreement with the study of Jaddu et al. (2022a, b, c).

Quality characteristics of dry and cooked pasta

The quality characteristics of dry and cooked pasta were given in Tables 1 and 2. The bulk density of dry pasta was significantly increased from 280.37 to 418.00 kg/m³. The weight of fruit powder present in dry pasta consequently rised in samples T₁ to T₄ might be the reason for high bulk density.

Table 1.

Quality characteristics of kadamb fruit based pasta

S No	Sample	Bulk density (kg/m3)	Expansion (%)	Solid loss (%)	Hardness, (N)	Cooking time (min)	Moisture content
1	Control	280.67 ± 6.03c	66.33 ± 5.51c	3.07 ± 0.38d	19.71 ± 0.23b	6.30 ± 0.10e	65.65 ± 0.51c
2	T1	311.00 ± 10.53b	82.00 ± 6.55bc	4.83 ± 0.45c	19.78 ± 0.30b	8.57 ± 0.15d	67.64 ± 0.16b
3	T2	331.67 ± 9.60b	98.33 ± 6.50ab	6.30 ± 0.46b	19.92 ± 0.21ab	10.47 ± 0.25c	68.60 ± 0.60b
4	T3	399.67 ± 12.50a	103.33 ± 7.50a	7.13 ± 0.45ab	20.17 ± 0.10ab	11.53 ± 0.25b	70.32 ± 0.51a
5	T4	418.00 ± 5.56a	117.00 ± 8.54a	7.43 ± 0.35a	20.35 ± 0.10a	12.40 ± 0.20a	71.61 ± 0.88a

Mean and Standard Deviations are taken for triplicate. Superscripts with different letters within the column varies significantly (p < 0.05)

Control – 100% semolina; T₁ – 5% fruit powder, 95% semolina; T₂ – 10% fruit powder, 90% semolina; T₃ – 15% fruit powder, 85% semolina; T₄ – 20% fruit powder, 80% semolina;

Table 2.

Color values of kadamb fruit based pasta

S. No	Sample	L*	a*	b*	Chroma	Hue angle	BI
1	Control	58.39 ± 0.27a	2.25 ± 0.06d	12.20 ± 0.16b	12.40 ± 0.17c	79.56 ± 0.14a	25.80 ± 0.34d
2	T1	56.57 ± 0.45b	2.34 ± 0.07d	12.88 ± 0.47b	13.09 ± 0.46c	79.72 ± 0.55a	28.37 ± 1.06c
3	T2	56.54 ± 0.43b	4.39 ± 0.01c	14.22 ± 0.29a	14.88 ± 0.28b	72.84 ± 0.30b	34.18 ± 0.66b
4	T3	53.15 ± 0.18c	5.21 ± 0.06b	14.45 ± 0.23a	15.36 ± 0.22ab	70.18 ± 0.33c	38.43 ± 0.56a
5	T4	52.67 ± 0.20c	5.39 ± 0.05a	14.69 ± 0.14a	15.64 ± 0.11a	69.87 ± 0.35c	39.67 ± 0.33a

Mean and Standard Deviation are taken for triplicate. Superscripts with different letters within the column varies significantly (p < 0.05)

Control – 100% semolina; T₁ – 5% fruit powder, 95% semolina; T₂ – 10% fruit powder, 90% semolina; T₃ – 15% fruit powder, 85% semolina; T₄ – 20% fruit powder, 80% semolina;

The color values of dry pasta such as lightness (L*) decreased and enhanced the redness (a*) and yellowness (b*) by the addition of kadamb fruit powder. The dark color of the kadamb fruit powder may have contributed to this colour change. Also, mallard reactions happen as the pasta is drying, which browns it (Canalis et al. 2020). The pasta's color becomes dark when kadamb fruit powder is added since the kadamb fruit contains sugars. This outcome is consistent with other research (Ning et al. 2022; Sagar & Pareek 2020) in which the addition of onion and passion fruit powder altered the color of the cookies and the base of the pizza, respectively. As the concentration of kadamb fruit powder increased, the browning index and overall color change (E) increased linearly. The hue angle reduced from 83.17° in control to 69.90° in 10% kadamb fruit powder mixed pasta. This demonstrates that the reddish color of formed pasta has increased due to the kadamb fruit powder concentrations. Similar outcomes were shown when purple passion fruit epicarp powder was added to cookies (Ning et al. 2022).

The amount of nutritional fiber in the pasta was boosted by adding kadamb fruit powder. By adding 10% kadamb fruit powder increased the dietary fiber content of dry pasta. Similar research revealed that adding apple pomace powder to the biscuits increased their dietary fiber content (Kohajdová et al. 2014). In another study, the inclusion of 7% sapota fiber powder and 4.5% beat root leaf raised the cookies' dietary fiber content from 2.38 to 5.02% and 14.03%, respectively (Asadi et al. 2021).

It was found that no visible variation in the amount of iron in the pasta when it was mixed with various kadamb fruit powder concentrations. However, the addition of the kadamb fruit powder enhanced the pasta's calcium content. When kadamb fruit powder was added to pasta, the calcium content increased. This demonstrates that the pasta with kadamb fruit powder added has a higher nutritional value than the control pasta. High in calcium, fiber was found in pasta with added kadamb powder. This made use of the underutilized kadamb fruit into a value-added product and increased the scope.

The percent expansion of cooking pasta also increased from 66.33 to 117.00% as fruit powder concentration increased in cooked pasta. More expansion might be due to absorption of water molecules between the semolina and powder granules during cooking were high.

The solid loss during the cooking of the pasta was increased from 3.07 to 7.43%. This could be a result of the protein network's structural changes, which are reflected in the solid loss, leading to the substitution of semolina for KFP. By replacing semolina in pasta products with defatted corn, cassava, and cowpea, as well as with germinated pigeon pea flour reported an increase in solid loss (Granito et al. 2002).

The hardness was increased from 19.71 to 20.35 N. Increase in hardness might be due to incorporation of fruit powder in the formulation and made the contents bound to each other and become more compact. Moreover, addition of kadamb fruit powder into pasta reduced the production of gluten and thus increase the hardness of the pasta. According to Zhao et al. (2005), the hardness and cooking loss of spaghetti rose with an increase in the inclusion of legume flour.

The optimal cooking time increased with a decrease in the semolina to KFP ratio. This was due to an increase in water absorption capacity. A small increment in the solid loss was observed with an increase in KFP proportion.

The pasta's moisture level was raised by the addition of kadamb fruit powder. This shows that the kadamb fruit powder avoided moisture loss throughout the drying of the pasta because an identical amount of water was used to create each sample of pasta. Due to their ability to store water and expand after cooking, fiber inclusion enhances the moisture content of the products (Sagar and Pareek 2020).

Infrared spectra of dry pasta samples

The spectra of FTIR indicated the presence of various functional groups of the bioactive compounds available in pasta samples. The resulting peaks confirmed various functional groups in the samples shown in Fig. 1. The wave lengths in the range 900–1153 cm⁻¹ were specifed to C–C and C–O stretching bands. The peak at 1054 cm⁻¹ in both control and KFP pasta samples was because of C–O absorptions indicating the presence of esters. This band was distinction of carbohydrates, which shows high absorbance between 1250 and 950 cm^−1. The peak marked at 1620 cm⁻¹ in KFP pasta can be assigned to N–H bending for primary and secondary amides. The broad absorption of C=O at 1680–1630 cm⁻¹ partially overlaps with the N–H absorption band at 1640–1620 cm⁻¹ (Athmaselvi et al. 2014).

Fig. 1.

FTIR graph of kadamb fruit powder, control, and pasta samples

In control and KFP pasta samples, the peaks at 2926 cm⁻¹ revealed the possible presence of –CH bonds The peak around 2900 cm⁻¹ might be due to asymmetric aliphatic C–H stretching vibrations of methylene (–CH₂). The peaks in the region of 3500–3000 cm⁻¹ were specified to the N–H stretch; the peak in this region was noticed in all the pasta samples. The peaks in the range from 3700 to 3000 cm⁻¹ correspond to water and OH absorption frequencies (Sudatta et al. 2020).

Micrographs of dry pasta samples

Micrographs of control and fiber fortified pasta samples were shown in Fig. 2. It was observed that the flour particles have spherical, smooth surface in control and few treated samples, particles were collapsed and become compact as fruit powder concentration increased in samples from T₁ to T₄. This might be due to the presence of fiber and increase in hardness of the treated samples.

Fig. 2.

Micrographs of control and fiber fortified pasta samples (T₁-T₄)

Sensory evaluation of cooked pasta

The sensory analyses of cooked pasta were presented in Table 3. The pasta gave a darker hue due to the use of KFP. Although many items' approval by consumers is influenced by their looks, buyers also favor darker pasta. Added kadamb fruit powder more than 10% to the pasta increased the sourness because kadamb has a sour taste. Pasta with lower kadamb fruit powder concentrations, on the other hand, obtained higher taste ratings. The taste improved when the kadamb fruit flavor was used sparingly. Increased kadamb fruit powder improved the pasta's texture. This might be because the pasta's hardness was waning, as was covered in the section on texture analysis. The results revealed that most of the panelists had enjoyed the flavor, texture, and aroma of the pasta which was up to 10% kadamb fruit powder in pasta.

Table 3.

Sensory analysis of kadamb fruit based pasta

Sl. No	Sample	Appearance	Color	Taste	Texture	Overall acceptability
1	Control	7.23 ± 0.15a	7.53 ± 0.40a	7.33 ± 0.15a	7.50 ± 0.30a	7.33 ± 0.23ab
2	T1	6.63 ± 0.15ab	7.17 ± 0.40a	7.07 ± 0.40a	7.17 ± 0.45ab	7.53 ± 0.35b
3	T2	6.57 ± 0.20ab	6.57 ± 0.35ab	6.77 ± 0.45a	6.67 ± 0.50ab	7.93 ± 0.41a
4	T3	6.27 ± 0.50b	6.10 ± 0.30bc	6.47 ± 0.35a	6.27 ± 0.50bc	6.83 ± 0.35b
5	T4	5.30 ± 0.40c	5.47 ± 0.35c	5.40 ± 0.46b	5.13 ± 0.41c	5.20 ± 0.40c

Mean and Standard Deviation are taken for triplicate. Superscripts with different letters within the column varies significantly (p < 0.05)

Control – 100% semolina; T₁ – 5% fruit powder, 95% semolina; T₂ – 10% fruit powder, 90% semolina; T₃ – 15% fruit powder, 85% semolina; T₄ – 20% fruit powder, 80% semolina;

Conditions for good acceptance of pasta

Using the hit-and-trial method of formulating ingredients for making pasta, the conditions of minimum percent solid loss, maximum overall acceptability, and other variables in the range were taken into consideration. It illustrates how the ratio of semolina to KFP affects the color and bulk density of dry pasta and the cooking time, solid loss, hardness, the overall acceptability of cooked pasta. With a high percentage of kadamb powder in the semolina, the percent solid loss was determined to be at its highest. Due to the higher semolina to kadamb powder ratio, the hardness was observed to have decreased. The increased ratio of semolina to kadamb powder may be the cause of the high overall acceptance. It was discovered that as the ratio of semolina to kadamb fruit powder increased, the bulk density of raw pasta also decreased.

Conclusion

The kadamb fruit powder was incorporated into pasta to enhance its nutritional and quality profile. In this study, the kadamb fruit powder had a substantial impact on the quality of the pasta. The hardness and percent solid loss of cooked pasta were increased with an increase in the proportion of kadamb fruit powder. The results revealed that KFP can be successfully incorporated into pasta up to 10% in the formulation without affecting the overall acceptability. This pasta will also address the issue of malnutrition for those who consume pasta regularly as well as the constipation problem by providing nutritional fiber or brought on by junk food. As kadamb fruit powder is an underutilized nutritional ingredient, its incorporation in pasta will be an economical solution for nutritional enhancement.

Author contributions

TCP: Conceptualization and Methodology, Investigation, Validation, writing. SJ: Statistical Analysis, writing. VB: Resources planning and instrumental analysis. MD: Revision of MC. RCP: Conceptualization and Revision. DS: Conceptualization, Review & Editing.

Funding

Not applicable.

Data availability

Not applicable.

Code availability

Not applicable.

Declarations

Conflict of interest

The author declares no conflict of interest.

Ethical approval

Not applicable.

Consent to participate

Not applicable.

Consent for publication

Not applicable.