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. 2024 Feb 5;21:101194. doi: 10.1016/j.fochx.2024.101194

The effect of cold atmospheric plasma pretreatment on oil absorption, acrylamide content and sensory characteristics of deep-fried potato strips

Leila Nateghi a,⁎, Elahesadat Hosseini b,c, Mohammad Ali Fakheri d
PMCID: PMC10876579  PMID: 38379802

Graphical abstract

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Keywords: Acrylamide, Cold atmospheric plasma, Fried potato strip, Oil uptake, Sensory features

Highlights

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    Cold plasma pretreatment reduced oil absorption and acrylamide in fried potatoes.

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    Physicochemical properties could be altered in treated potato strips.

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    SEM micrographs revealed potato starch structural changes.

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    XRD analysis showed a slight increase in the crystallinity of treated potato strips.

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    Sensory evaluation scored higher for prolonged treated potato strips.

Abstract

This study investigated the impact of 60 kV Cold Atmospheric Plasma (CAP) pretreatment for varying durations (5, 10, and 15 min) on potato strip characteristics before and after frying, emphasizing oil uptake, acrylamide formation. Potato samples treated with cap showed significantly better physicochemical characteristics. Scanning electron microscopy revealed deformation of cell wall due to CAP treatment. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy indicated structural changes, while X-ray diffraction analysis suggested that starch remained amorphous state in CAP-pretreated samples. Post-frying, CAP-treated potato strips exhibited altered oil distribution with reduced absorption, possibly due to microstructural changes. CAP substantially reduced acrylamide formation during frying by degrading asparagine and inactivating amylase. CAP affected strip color, with increased brightness and decreased redness and yellowness after 14 days. Sensory evaluation showed no significant difference, with prolonged CAP-treated strips receiving higher overall acceptability scores. These findings highlight CAP as a non-thermal technology to enhance fried potato product quality and safety.

1. Introduction

Frying is a commonly employed primary cooking technique for preparing and preserving various food items. Fried products are favored for their distinct flavor, appealing color, and unique taste. However, the abundance of oil in such products has a detrimental effect on their quality and falls short of satisfying the demands of consumers seeking a more health-conscious diet. On the other hand, acrylamide formation in fried products particularly starchy-based products (e.g., French fries and chips etc.) when subjected to thermal processing (>120 °C) has led to extensive research on the replacement of conventional methods with new methods to reduce the absorption of oil uptake and amount of acrylamide in such products. In accordance with the classification provided by the International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), acrylamide has been designated as belonging to Group 2A “probably carcinogenic to humans” (IARC, 1994). Considering the high level of natural acrylamide precursors (e.g., reducing sugars and asparagine content) formed in potato, reduction methods, are a logical approach to reduce the level of acrylamide as well as oil uptake in starchy-based products like fried potato chips. One of the most effective way to diminish oil uptake and the potential of acrylamide formation is to reduce the number of precursors in potato (as raw material) by selecting the proper cultivator and storage condition, temperature and time control of the heat treatment as well as applying pre-processing (hot water blanching, enzyme treatment, coating, freezing, pre-drying etc. (Ahmadian et al., 2023, Albertos et al., 2016, Ananey-Obiri et al., 2018, Medeiros Vinci et al., 2012, Ngobese and Workneh, 2018, Niamnuy et al., 2014, Parker et al., 2012, Pedreschi et al., 2008) However, these conventional pre-processing methods are time demanding, costly, unpleasant sensory changes, low efficiency, high-energy consumption and difficult implementation for industrial scale which led to find innovative methods to decline oil absorption and formation of acrylamide in fried potato products (Granda et al., 2004). In this regard, the food industry is proposing innovative non-thermal processing technologies such as pulsed electric fields, UV irradiation, ultrasound, high hydrostatic pressure and other revolutionary cold processing technologies which described for use in the food sector (Antunes-Rohling et al., 2018, Kobayashi et al., 2019, Rajaei et al., 2010, Schouten et al., 2020, Soares et al., 2016, Zhang et al., 2021a). CAP as a non-thermal food processing technique has gained significant attention due to its capacity to deactivate microorganisms and alter the physical and chemical characteristics of food (Birania et al., 2022, Farooq et al., 2023). CAP accomplishes this by producing a blend of positive and negative ions, radicals, electrons, and both excited and ground-state atoms. A variety of these reactive species are generated through the exposure of a gas to an energy source (Bahrami et al., 2016, Birania et al., 2022, Mahdavian Mehr and Koocheki, 2020, Mohamed et al., 2021). Moreover, as a cold treatment, it has the potential to better preserve the sensory and functional properties of foods (Mohamed et al., 2021, Pérez-Andrés et al., 2020). In the food sector, the most widely employed method for generating CAP is Dielectric Barrier Discharge (DBD). CAP generated in the atmosphere encompasses free electrons, ions, neutral particles, as well as reactive oxygen species (ROS) like O, OH, and O3, and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) such as NO, NO2, HNO2, and ONOOH, along with UV photons. Indeed, the presence of reactive species in cold plasma plays a crucial role in inducing modifications within the food matrix, which subsequently affect food quality. For example, Guo et al., 2022 demonstrated that cold plasma treatment increases the presence of carbonyl and carboxyl groups in potato starch. These modifications have been shown to result in improved viscosity, hydration properties, and digestibility of the starch. However, the extent and nature of these modifications are dependent on several factors, including the applied voltage and the duration of the treatment (Bahrami et al., 2016, Mahdavian Mehr and Koocheki, 2020). To the best of our knowledge, there is no studies regarding how CAP affects oil absorption and acrylamide formation. Hence, the aim of this research was to investigate the effects of CAP with an electric voltage of 60 kV and exposure durations of 5, 10 and 15 min on variables such as oil absorption and acrylamide formation in fried potato strips. In this context, various precursors of acrylamide, including amylose content, reducing sugars content, and asparagine content, were assessed, along with quality parameter such as moisture content. Moreover, the investigation extended to assess the influence of CAP on microstructure and wall morphology to establish correlations between oil absorption and CAP treatments. Additionally, the study included evaluations of color and sensory attributes over a 14-day storage period at ambient temperature. This research provides valuable insights into the utilization of emerging non-thermal technology, CAP, aligning with the growing interest in optimized process design and quality control in food processing.

2. Materials and method

2.1. Material

Potato samples were gathered randomly from the market in Tehran (Iran). Sunflower oil was supplied by Behshahr Industrial Co. (Tehran, Iran). Petroleum ether and Sudan Red I were procured from Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co. (China). Nile Red was provided by Tokyo Chemical Industry Co. (Japan). All other chemicals utilized in this study were of analytical grade and obtained from Merck Co. (Germany).

2.2. Preparation of potato strips

Frist, potatoes were washed, peeled and sliced (2 mm thickness × 22 mm diameter). The potato strips were subsequently washed with distilled water for approximately 1 min to remove any residues. The excess water on the potato surfaces was dried with a tissue, and the strips were kept at ambient temperature (∼30 min) for further analysis.

2.3. Dielectric barrier discharge cold plasma pretreatment

CAP equipped with DBD (Kavosh Yaran Fan Pouya Co, Iran) was applied on potato strips as a pretreatment procedure for potato strips, conducted under ambient temperature. In accordance with preliminary studies, plasma irradiation durations were set at 5, 10, and 15 min, with an electric voltage of 60 kV. Thereafter, both control group (untreated) and the samples pretreated with CAP were blanched by immersing potato strips in boiling water for about 3 min (sample to water ratio (g/g) ∼ 1:8) and then cooled to room temperature before frying. Prior to frying, surface water was eliminated using a tissue (Goiana et al., 2022, Jiang et al., 2022).

2.3. Physicochemical analysis on unfried potato strips

2.3.1. Amylose content, reducing sugars content, asparagine content, moisture content

Amylose content of the potato strips was assessed using the iodine binding method outlined by (Carvalho et al., 2021). The analysis of reducing sugar content and asparagine content in the samples followed the method described by (Knight et al., 2021). Moisture content was determined using the approach detailed by (Zhang et al., 2021b).

2.4. Structural properties of the unfried potato strips

2.4.1. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM)

In order to assess the microstructure of CAP pretreated and untreated potato strips and gain further insight into the surface morphology of the samples, SEM (Vega3 TESCAN) was implemented. In this regard, the platinum coated samples were mounted on sample holder. Assessment was carried out under vacuum condition at an acceleration voltage of 5 kV (Thirumdas et al., 2017).

2.4.2. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)

FT-IR spectra were recorded on attenuated total reflection (ATR) mode (Bruker, Model vertex 70, Germany) to assess functional groups in structure of the potato strips at ambient temperature. The instrument's settings were adjusted for 64 scans at a resolution of 4 cm−1 within the wavenumber range of 4000–400 cm−1 to measure light transmission (transmittance %). Data collection was carried out using Opus 7.5 software. Before collecting spectra, liquid nitrogen was used to cool the detector (20 min). Starch sample spectra were recorded against a background spectrum (air spectrum) and potassium thiocyanate (KSCN) was applied as an internal standard (Chaiwat et al., 2016).

2.4.3. X-ray diffraction (XRD)

Crystal structure of the un-fried potato strips was ascertained using a diffractometer, the D8 ADVANCE, Bruker (Germany). The scan range for this analysis was set from 5 to 85 degrees (2θ).

2.5. Frying condition

Untreated and CAP pretreated samples were deep-fried in 3 L of sunflower oil in ratio of 1:30(g/mL) at 180 °C for 8 min by using thermostatic fryer (Jintan Precision Instruments Co. China).

2.6. Determination of oil content

Oil fractions, including surface oil (SOs), penetrated surface oil (PSOs), and structural oil (STOs), in potato strips were assessed using a modified version of the methodology introduced by (Bouchon et al., 2003). To assess the macroscopic oil distribution, an oil color indicator was initially prepared by adding 10.2 g of the heat-resistant dye Sudan Red I to each liter of the oil, resulting in a volume of 25 mL. The color was thoroughly mixed with the frying oil at 30 °C until it completely and uniformly dissolved in the oil over 24 h. Subsequently, each solution was further diluted nine times by volume with petroleum ether at temperatures ranging from 40 °C to 60 °C. Then, the absorbance of each diluted solution was measured at 509 nm using a spectrophotometer (UV 2100, China) at room temperature. It's important to note that the prepared Sudan Red I was rapidly added to the frying oil 20 s before the end of each frying process. After frying, all samples were placed on a wire mesh to allow excess oil to drain at room temperature before analysis. Total oil (TOs) content in fried potato strips was determined using the Soxhlet extraction method using the SOX406 Fat Analyzer (Jinan, China), with petroleum ether (60–90 °C) employed as the solvent. The measurement of SOs content involved the following steps: first, the potato strips were removed from the fryer and allowed to cool to 20 °C for 20 min. Subsequently, the samples were briefly dipped into an aluminum container containing 30 mL of petroleum ether for 1 sec, after which the petroleum ether was allowed to evaporate. The difference in weight between the aluminum box before and after this drying process was considered as the SOs. After the extraction of SOs, the remaining samples were subjected to the Soxhlet extraction method. The oil obtained through the extraction consisted of the combined mass of PSOs and STOs. The weight of the dyed oil was recorded as PSOs, while the remaining portion of the Soxhlet-extracted oil was categorized as STOs. The oil content of the fried samples was quantified on a dry basis (db, g/g).

Microscopic analysis of the fried potato strips was conducted using a Confocal Laser Scanning Microscope (CLSM) (LSM710, Germany). To investigate the distribution of oil within the samples, raw potato strips were fried under conditions resembling those described previously. They were fried directly in hot oil mixed with Nile Red dyeing oil at a concentration of 0.0192 g per liter of the oil. After frying, the samples were taken out and cut either transversely or longitudinally. Subsequently, the samples were observed using a CLSM following the method described by (Zhang et al., 2016). The CLSM parameters used for observation were as follows: the excitation wavelength was set at 514 nm, and the emission wavelength was set at 598 nm. The step size for 3D reconstruction was 0.45 μm. Image processing was carried out using the Carl Zeiss LSM software.

2.7. Determination of acrylamide content

Acrylamide content was determined following the method by (Knight et al., 2021). In brief, 25 g of fried potato strips were homogenized with a Robot Coupe food processor, pulsed five times. About 1 g of the homogenized samples was then accurately weighed and placed into a 12 mL tube. Subsequently, a solution containing the internal standard (10 mL of 20 ppb 13C3 acrylamide in HPLC-grade methanol) was added, and the samples were mixed using vortex mixing for 20 min. After mixing, the samples were centrifuged at 13500 rpm for 10 min at 25 °C. Automated purification of the primary extracts involved transferring precise aliquots (300 µL) onto a primed 96-well Bond Elut plate using a Hamilton STARlet robot (Hamilton Bonaduz AG, Bonaduz, Switzerland). 30 min after adding the sample, the plate was subjected to low pressure for 5 to 10 s. Then, ultra-pure water (300 µL) was dispensed into each sample well and left to stand for 15 min. A second step with low pressure for 5–10 s was carried out. The initial sample elution and wash were discarded. A new plate was used to elute and collect the purified extract, using 150 µL of ultra-pure water. After standing for 15 min, low pressure was applied to the plate for 5–10 s until the filters were dry.

LC-MS/MS analyses were performed using an API 5000 system with an Agilent 1200 HPLC pump and a Gerstel Multipurpose Sampler 2XL. The desired compounds were separated using a Hypercarb column (100 mm × 3 mm, 5 µm, Thermo Scientific, Waltham, USA), maintained at 60 °C. For LC-MS/MS analyses, the mobile phase consisted of a blend of deionized water, methanol, and formic acid in a ratio of 850:150:1.0 (v/v/v), with a flow rate of 0.25 mL/min.

2.8. Color evaluation

The impact of the CAP pretreatment on the surface color of the samples was determined using a chromameter CR-300 (Konica Minolta, NJ, USA). Readings were obtained on a CIELAB scale (L*, a*, b*). The experiment was repeated three times at 20 °C, with measurements taken at three equidistant locations on each strip (on four larger sides), and the average values were recorded (Jia et al., 2017). The color changes were, however, observed in the L* and a* parameters, as these parameters exhibited the most significant variations during non-enzymatic browning reactions that occurred during frying.

2.9. Sensory assessment

The sensory evaluations of the fried potato strips were conducted in accordance with the approach detailed by (Zhang et al., 2021b) with minor modifications. A group of fifteen semi-trained panelists, comprising nine men and six women, all well-versed in the characteristics of potato strips, were engaged for the evaluation. The participants were tasked with assessing both the CAP treated and untreated across various attributes, including odor, taste, texture, and overall acceptability. This assessment involved employing a descriptive scaling method for each attribute: odor (5 = strong, 1 = weak), taste (5 = very good, 1 = very bad), texture (5 = extremely favorable, 1 = extremely unfavorable), and overall acceptance (5 = like extremely, 1 = dislike extremely). Following each assessment, the panelists were offered unsalted crackers and water for the purpose of cleansing their palates and rinsing their mouths.

2.10. Statistical analysis

Analysis was carried out using a completely randomized factorial design, and the results were reported as mean ± standard deviation. To assess significant differences, a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted, and Duncan's test was utilized to evaluate the mean differences. The statistical analyses were conducted using SPSS (version 32), and graphical representations were created using Excel 2013.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Physicochemical properties of raw potato strips

In Table 1, the average percentages of amylose, asparagine, reducing sugars, and moisture contents are presented for two groups: the control sample and the three CAP pre-treatments (precisely 60 kV voltage, exposure times of 5, 10, and 15 min). As can be seen, the reduction in amylose content was the least pronounced after exposure to plasma treatment, specifically up to 15 min (p < 0.05). The generation of free radicals and high-energy electrons during plasma treatment contributes to bond cleavage, resulting in a lower concentration of amylose. The breakdown of bonds within amylose and amylopectin chains leads to the formation of smaller, simpler compounds. This, in turn, causes the release of these simpler compounds from starch molecules, leading to a decrease in amylose content within the starch (Carvalho et al., 2021, Sonkar et al., 2023). Plasma plays a crucial role in generating free radicals and secondary electrons, both of which contribute to the cleavage of glycosidic linkages. However, when treatment durations increased, there was an observable trend towards higher amylose concentration. Notably, in comparison to other treatment combinations, CAP pretreatment at 60 kV for 15 min exhibited a significantly elevated amylose content (22.49 ± 0.26 %). These findings are consistent with (Carvalho et al., 2021) in their analysis of Aria starch using CAP. Increased voltage promotes the formation of intermolecular connections, resulting in greater complexity of starch molecules and a corresponding increase in amylose content. In a related context, the findings of (Sonkar et al., 2023) align with these conclusions as they examined how applying CAP affects the structural properties of kodo-millet starch. Increasing the voltage to 20 kV and extending the exposure time to 30 min promotes the formation of intermolecular connections, leading to greater starch molecule complexity and a subsequent increase in amylose content. This is primarily due to the breakdown of granule structures and the disruption of bonds in larger starch molecules, resulting in enhanced solubility.

Table 1.

Content of amylose, asparagine, reducing sugars and moisture in un-fried potato strips CAP pretreated and untreated samples.

Treatment Amylose (%) Asparagine (mg/100 g DW) Reducing sugars (mg/100 g) Moisture (% dry basis)
Control sample 20.38 ± 0.17 a 667.81 ± 4.47a 232.01 ± 2.8 a 72.23 ± 1.12 a
CAP pretreatment No 1 (60 kV + 5 min) 20.25 ± 0.63 a 635.68 ± 3.77b 188.11 ± 2.78b 69.89 ± 0.64b
CAP pretreatment No 2 (60 kV + 10 min) 20.14 ± 0.14 a 582.03 ± 6.41c 125.29 ± 5.43c 67.11 ± 0.89c
CAP pretreatment No 3 (60 kV + 15 min) 22.49 ± 0.26b 562.28 ± 2.26 d 105.74 ± 2.52 d 66.11 ± 0.27 d
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Different letters on the column indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) among samples (Duncan test). The values represent the average and standard deviation of three replicates.

The average amount of asparagine in potato strips pretreated with CAP exhibited that the control had the highest amount of asparagine (667.81 ± 4.47 mg/100 g DW), whereas treatment 3 (60 kV + 15 min) displayed the lowest amount of asparagine (562.28 ± 2.26 mg/100 g DW). Notably, as the voltage application time of CAP increased, the amount of asparagine decreased significantly (p < 0.05). This indicates that the pretreatment with CAP had a notable impact in diminishing the concentrations of asparagine within the potato strips. Given the low operational temperature (25 °C), this reduction is likely associated with the generation of reactive species in the plasma and their subsequent interactions, which play a crucial role in breaking down amino structure by CAP pretreatment (Surowsky et al., 2013). The reduction in the free asparagine content in the CAP pretreated samples aligns with the findings of other researchers (Guo et al., 2023, Zou et al., 2023). The average amount of reducing sugars in the CAP-pretreated samples and the control group was also shown in Table 1. As observed, with an increase in the CAP exposure time, there was a significant reduction in the level of reducing sugars (P < 0.05). Specifically, the control group showed the highest content of reducing sugars at 232.01 ± 2.8 mg/100 g, while treatment 3 (60 kV + 15 min) exhibited the lowest content of reducing sugars at 105.74 ± 2.52 mg/100 g. These results indicated that CAP pretreatment could effectively reduce the content of reducing sugars in the potato strips, and the effect was more pronounced with longer exposure times (up to 15 min). The reduction in reducing sugar levels is likely a result of CAP pretreatment affecting enzyme inactivation. Previous research by other scientists has extensively documented that amylase is responsible for breaking down starch into its constituent units, which include reducing sugars. The CAP pretreatment may lead to amylase inactivation and a subsequent loss of its activity due to the formation of reactive species in the plasma and their interactions with the protein's structure (Chutia et al., 2019, Guo et al., 2023, Surowsky et al., 2013). Therefore, it is expected that as the CAP exposure time increases, the reduction in reducing sugars becomes more pronounced due to the extended inactivation of amylase.

The moisture content also showed a statistically significant difference (p < 0.05) between the CAP pretreatment groups and the control (Table 1). With an increase in the duration of CAP, a detectable reduction in moisture content was observed (p < 0.05). The highest moisture content (72.23 ± 1.12 %) was associated with the control sample, while the lowest moisture content (66.11 ± 0.27 %) was linked to treatment 3 (60 kV + 15 min). The reduction in moisture content in samples subjected to CAP pretreatment can be ascribed to structural alterations and the formation of irregularly shaped microchannels. These changes are a consequence of electrons and ions reacting with hydrogen and other non-covalent bonds within the cell wall polymers (Zhang et al., 2019). Indeed, the diffusion of reactive species into the potato strips resulted in alterations to the cellular structure of the polymer, ultimately creating a spongy state that facilitated the diffusion of water (Bao et al., 2021, Miraei Ashtiani et al., 2020, Zhang et al., 2019). Therefore, it can be inferred that both CAP pretreatments have the potential to enhance moisture removal in food materials. Given the observed reductions in asparagine, reducing sugars as acrylamide precursors, and moisture content in potato strips treated with CAP, it can be assumed that the utilization of CAP may effectively mitigate the formation of acrylamide, thus offering a potential strategy for producing potato strips with diminished levels of acrylamide. Moreover, the decrease in moisture content may potentially enhance oil absorption.

3.2. Morphological analysis

Fig. 1 illustrates the SEM micro structure observations of the CAP pretreated samples and the control. It can be observed that the fine structure of the untreated sample included multi-faceted cells with varying shapes, typically appearing as pentagonal and hexagonal cross-section. Additionally, the potato cells were arranged with thin cell walls and filled with intracellular fluid in which giving them a polygonal appearance. In this regard, other researchers have also observed the microscopic fine structure of potato and found that this product consists of a soft and water-rich parenchyma tissue (Gibson, 2012, Singh et al., 2014). SEM results showed that, with prolongation in CAP exposure time up to 15 min, the deformation of the potato cells become more noticeable, and there were obvious signs of cell wall wrinkling and cracking. The damages caused by CAP on the potato tissue were diverse, including cell deformation, microscopic fractures and cell wall breakages. These changes are likely contributing factors to the transfer of moisture which aligning with the findings of the moisture content results. Similar trends were reported by other researchers (Bai et al., 2023, Bao et al., 2021, Carvalho et al., 2021, Zhang et al., 2019).

Fig. 1.

Fig. 1

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SEM images of the surface of A (untreated potato strips), B (potato strips treated with 60 kV for 5 min), C (potato strips treated with 60 kV for 10 min) and D (potato strips treated with 60 kV for 15 min).

3.3. FTIR and XRD analyses

FTIR analysis was employed to identify the primary functional groups in CAP-pretreated potatoes. The FTIR analysis revealed robust peaks spanning from 900 to 3600 cm−1 in all samples, both treated ones and the control (Fig. 2). As can be seen, the control sample, which lacks cold plasma treatment, exhibited more peaks within the 1000 to 1600 cm−1 wavelength range compared to the other treatments. Interestingly, within this wavelength range, the number of peaks decreases with increasing CAP exposure time. However, across all graphs, no distinct peaks were observed within the 1700 to 2900 cm−1 wavelength range. These findings effectively demonstrated the influence of CAP duration, as evidenced by the peak variations within the 1000 to 1600 cm−1 range. In Fig. 2, it is evident that the control and CAP-pretreated samples exhibited peaks at approximately 1100 cm−1 and 1600 cm−1, respectively, which may be attributed to C—O bending, C—H symmetric bending and C — O - C asymmetric stretching bonds. The presence of peaks within the 3222 to 3295 cm−1 ranges, signified the existence of O—H bond stretching vibrations in all potato strips subjected to CAP pretreatment. Peaks spanning the 1900 to 3600 cm−1 range suggested that plasma power induces stretching vibrations in –OH and –CH bonds. The wide-ranging peaks at approximately 1600 cm−1 were indicative of phenol and flavanol compounds, with water molecules contributing significantly, as evident from the broad base and extended peak. The 1761 cm−1 peak in the control sample was attributed to the acetyl and carbonyl group (C Created by potrace 1.16, written by Peter Selinger 2001-2019 O) stretching, as well as the stretch of C Created by potrace 1.16, written by Peter Selinger 2001-2019 C due to hydrogen atoms in the methane ring and a methoxy group. Notably, the 1544 cm−1 peak in the FTIR spectrum of control sample disappeared in other potato strips' spectra, signifying significant changes during the treatment. Another crucial and well-known peak at 1330 cm−1, often associated with OH shear vibrations, was observed in the CAP-pretreated spectrum. Peaks attributed to C—O fall within the range of 1051 to 1669 cm−1. Additionally, a minor peak at 1790 cm−1 in the FTIR spectrum suggested hydroxyl stretching vibration and the presence of C Created by potrace 1.16, written by Peter Selinger 2001-2019 C bonds. A symmetric stretching vibration of the carboxylate group (COO–) (Xie et al., 2013), as well as the flavanol and phenol regions (Hssaini et al., 2022), was apparent. CH2OH bonds and C Created by potrace 1.16, written by Peter Selinger 2001-2019 C bonds within the 2929 cm−1 range, indicative of flavanols and phenols (Masek et al., 2014), imply a stretching state of amorphous starch.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 2

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FTIR spectrum of A (untreated potato strips), B (potato strips treated with 60 kV for 5 min), C (potato strips treated with 60 kV for 10 min) and D (potato strips treated with 60 kV for 15 min).

X-ray Diffraction (XRD) analysis as non-destructive technique was used to determine the crystalline or amorphous nature of products. Fig. 3 presents the XRD results, revealing microstructural changes in potato texture resulting from CAP pretreatments. Notably, in the 10 to 35 range, all samples exhibited a distinct peak which followed by smaller peaks extending up to 90 of 2θ. However, in treatment 2 (60 kV + 10 min), two peaks appear together in this range, setting it apart from the others. In the control sample, closely spaced and compressed peaks were observed. Nevertheless, in the other samples, there was a reduction in compression, which influenced by varying the duration of CAP exposure time. Starch is a significant biochemical component of potato dry matter, and the wide peak observed in pretreated potatoes suggests that, following cold plasma treatment, the dominant crystal form was of the B-type starch (Chang et al., 2020). However, the diffraction peaks of the CAP-pretreated potato samples showed slight changes compared to the control. This suggests that, despite the enhancements in crystallinity, the starch primarily remained in an amorphous state (Guo et al., 2022). The amorphous structure observed in this study likely results from CAP pretreatment, which disrupts starch structure irregularities and promotes increased water movement within the potato structure (Chang et al., 2020). In addition, alterations in moisture content and starch structure contribute to variations of the XRD pattern.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 3

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XRD A (untreated potato strips), B (potato strip treated with 60 kV for 5 min), C (potato strip treated with 60 kV for 10 min) and D (potato strips treated with 60 kV for 15 min.

3.4. Oil content and oil fractions of fried potato strips

Table 2 presents the oil content and oil fractions (TO, SO, PSO, and STO) of potato strips that underwent CAP pretreatment. The changes in TO, SO, PSO, and STO of potato strips under various conditions exhibited similar trends. As the moisture content decreased, TO increased. The SO, which constitutes the smallest portion of the TO ranging from 2.02 ± 0.16 % to 3.60 ± 0.3 %, exhibited a noticeable reduction with decreasing moisture content. These trends were most pronounced in treatment No. 3 (60 kV, 15 min), possibly due to the surface roughness of the samples. Notably, more oil remained on the sample surfaces, and this was attributed to the fact that the pretreated samples developed rougher surfaces after undergoing CAP treatment. The PSO, as the primary component of TO, exhibited a similar trend as TO. Increasing the duration of CAP exposure time, up to 15 min, had a more pronounced impact on PSO content (35.18 ± 0.55 %). The variations in PSO fraction were associated with the cooling phase's impact on the oil uptake mechanism. Oil uptake, as a surface-related phenomenon, encompasses the process of oil draining from the surface and its subsequent absorption into the matrix. Upon the removal of fried samples from the frying medium, a greater quantity of oil migrates toward the inner layers. This phenomenon could be attributed to the increased internal pressure resulting from the significant temperature difference between the core and the surface (Moreno et al., 2010). Furthermore, in comparison to the control samples (19.55 ± 0.32 %), the STO content in CAP-pretreated samples decreased as the exposure time was extended to 15 min, ranging from 15.82 ± 0.34 % to 14.91 ± 0.22 %. Notably, the control sample had the highest TO content (54.62 ± 0.34 %), while the highest and lowest TO contents among CAP-pretreated samples were observed in treatment No. 3 (53.69 ± 0.54 %) and treatment No. 1 (47.98 ± 0.28 %). This increase in TO content was likely attributed to the prolonged application of plasma power. Extended exposure time can result in the degradation of potato tissue, leading to increased moisture loss and subsequent oil absorption. In fact, during deep frying, moisture within the potato is replaced by oil, and the internal moisture rapidly turns into steam, escaping through pores and gaps, creating a positive steam gradient. As the evaporation process continues, cavities and empty spaces form on the potato's surface. As this process progresses, the diameter of these cavities increases, leading to a decrease in the steam gradient towards the exterior of the potato, ultimately resulting in increased oil absorption (Arslan et al., 2018). Based on the moisture substitution mechanism of oil absorption, it was observed that samples that lose a higher amount of moisture during the pre-processing step (CAP pretreatment) and consequently had lower final moisture content tended to absorb a greater amount of oil. These findings support the correlation between moisture removal and oil absorption (Jia et al., 2018, Pedreschi et al., 2008). Therefore, the total volume of oil absorbed during deep frying is approximately equal to the amount of water separated from the food substance (Zhang et al., 2021b).

Table 2.

Comparison of oil absorption (%) and Acrylamide (µg kg−1) in fried potato strips pretreated with cold plasma and without cold plasma pretreatment after 14 days of storage.

Treatment SOs STOs PSOs TOs Acrylamide
Control sample 2.02 ± 0.16 a 19.55 ± 0.32 a 33.05 ± 0.55 a 54.62 ± 0.34a 1807.35 ± 2.10 a
Treatment No 1 (60 kV + 5 min) 2.61 ± 0.12b 15.82 ± 0.34b 29.55 ± 0.45b 47.98 ± 0.28b 1317.15 ± 2.63b
Treatment No 2 (60 kV + 10 min) 2.86 ± 0.08c 15.06 ± 0.3c 31.5 ± 0.45c 49.49 ± 0.45c 772.84 ± 3.14C
Treatment No 3 (60 kV + 15 min) 3.60 ± 0.3d 14.91 ± 0.22 d 35.18 ± 0.55 d 53.69 ± 0.54d 346.86 ± 1.26 d
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Values are the means ± standard deviations (n = 3). Different letters on the column indicate significant differences (p < 0.05) among samples. STO = Structural Oil, SO = Surface Oil, PSO = penetrated surface oil, TO = Total oil.

The accurate determination of the oil distribution and surface morphology holds significant importance in microstructural investigations of fried potato tissue. In this regard, potato strips fried in oil containing the thermoresistant fluorescent probe Nile Red which allowed direct observation through CLSM. This method helps mitigate the artifacts typically associated with sample preparation for light microscopy. CLSM enables optical sectioning of samples at different depths, as opposed to the conventional physical sectioning used in classical microscopy. This approach allows for the observation of oil distribution in the crust that closely mimics real conditions (Pedreschi & Aguilera, 2002). The three-dimensional reconstruction images are presented in Fig. 4. Panels A, B, C, and D illustrate different oil distribution patterns in both control and CAP-pretreated samples respectively. As can be seen, the red regions denoted the absorbed oil during the frying process, with a larger red area indicating a higher oil content (Zhang et al., 2016). In this regard, the control samples exhibited nearly complete oil saturation throughout the potato strips. Furthermore, a multitude of cells retained their structural integrity and morphology. The oil coated the cell walls, filled the intercellular spaces, and conformed to the cell shapes. In contrast to the control potato samples, the CAP-pretreated samples exhibited uneven red regions and disrupted cell structures. A comparison of the red regions in Figures B, C, and D revealed that the oil content in Figure D (60 kV + 15 min) was the highest, followed by Figure C (60 kV + 10 min), while Figure B (60 kV + 5 min) had the lowest oil content under the same frying condition (180 °C, 8 min). This suggested that the microstructural changes in the potato tissue led to CAP-pretreated potato strips absorbing more oil after frying. It became evident that increasing the duration of CAP exposure time, up to 15 min, resulted in more oil uptake than other treatments. This phenomenon was likely attributed to the deformation of cell shapes and the disruption of cell walls, ultimately altering the oil distribution within the potato strips. The formation of pores, cracks, micro-channels, and the disruption of cell structures might be induced by CAP contributed to changes in oil distribution. As shown, the infiltration of oil followed a sequence from the outer layers to the inner layers. Analysis of these images revealed that the oil followed the contours of the cells, adhered to the cell walls, and filled the intercellular spaces. This distribution pattern aligns with the findings reported by (Moreno et al., 2010, Pedreschi et al., 2008, Zhang et al., 2021b).

Fig. 4.

Fig. 4

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Fluorescence mode CLSM images of oil distribution in the control(A) and CAP pretreated (60 kV, 5 min) (B), CAP pretreated (60 kV, 10 min) (C), and CAP pretreated (60 kV, 15 min) potato strips(D).

3.5. Acrylamide content of fried potato strips

The acrylamide content was determined to evaluate the effectiveness of CAP pretreatment at specific voltages and various exposure times in reducing acrylamide formation in fried potato strips (Table 2). It is evident that there was a significant difference (p < 0.05) in acrylamide formation between the CAP pretreatments and the untreated sample, with levels ranging from 1807.35 ± 2.1 to 346.86 ± 1.26 µg kg−1 As the duration of CAP exposure time increased, the acrylamide levels decreased. The lowest level of acrylamide formation (346.86 ± 1.26 µg kg−1) was observed in treatment No 3 (60 kV + 15 min), consistent with data provided by EFSA (EFSA, 2012). However, the highest amount of acrylamide formation (1807.2 µg kg−1) was found in the control sample. Significant differences (p < 0.05) among the samples were detected, indicating that CAP pretreatment was sufficient to substantially impact the precursors of acrylamide in raw potatoes, especially as the duration of CAP exposure time increased. The decline in acrylamide content might be attributed to two main factors. First, CAP pretreatments led to the degradation of asparagine. Second, they resulted in the inactivation and loss of amylase activity, which ultimately reduced the levels of reducing sugars. In this regard, (Halford et al., 2022, Pedreschi et al., 2008, Raffan and Halford, 2019) highlighted the critical role of asparagine and reducing sugar in acrylamide formation, particularly in chopped and washed potatoes. Our findings indicated a significant reduction in both asparagine and reducing sugar content, which serve as precursors for acrylamide formation in raw potatoes. This reduction could be a contributing factor to the decline in acrylamide formation in processed potatoes.

3.6. Color of fried potato strips

The color of fried potatoes is primarily influenced by the Maillard reaction, which is in turn affected by the presence of superficial reducing sugars, as well as the frying temperature and duration (MARQUEZ & AÑON, 1986). Color parameters, including L*, a*, and b*, were assessed during the storage period. In Table 1S, the color indicator values of fried potato strips are presented after 14 days of storage at room temperature. It is noteworthy that an increase in the duration of CAP pretreatment up to 15 min resulted in increased brightness (L*) of the samples, ranging from 72 ± 0.44 to 80.61 ± 0.4. Conversely, both redness (a*) and yellowness (b*) decreased, ranging from 2.47 ± 0.05 to 0.88 ± 0.04 and 33.36 ± 0.06 to 26.11 ± 0.21, respectively. The statistical results indicated significant effects of the treatments on the color of fried potato strips. Similarly,(Hertwig et al., 2015) demonstrated that paprika powder and red pepper, when treated with cold plasma, exhibited an increase in brightness and a reduction in redness during the storage. The rise in the brightness can be attributed to the sensitivity of carotenoids conjugated double bonds to reactive compounds generated during the CAP pretreatment, such as ultraviolet radiation, and active species.

3.7. Sensory evaluation

Sensory analysis is typically considered as an important criterion for evaluating the quality of fried potato strips as it helps in product development by measuring consumers' perceptions of the product. In this regard, sensory evaluation was implemented to determine the influence of CAP pretreatment on organoleptic properties of the fried potato strips as compared to the control during the 14 days of storage. The results of sensory analysis are shown in Table 1S and revealed that there was no significant difference between the CAP-pretreated samples and the control. In general, Treatment No 3 (60 kV, 15 min) exhibited the higher overall acceptability than others. The obtained results were consistent with those of (Matan et al., 2015), who found that the application of atmospheric pressure radio discharge plasma pretreatment had no negative effects on the sensory characteristics of pitaya fruit.

4. Conclusion

In this investigation, we delved into assessing the impact of CAP- pretreatment on the quality and properties of deep-fried potato strips. The physicochemical properties analysis revealed that CAP treatments, particularly at 60 kV for 15 min, resulted in substantial reductions in both asparagine and reducing sugars, along with a concurrent increase in amylose content. Furthermore, there was a noticeable decrease in moisture content following CAP treatments. SEM clearly demonstrated that CAP pretreatments induce significant alterations in the microscopic structure of potato cells, leading to observable changes in cell wall integrity and morphology. Furthermore, FTIR verified changes in functional groups, indicating structural alterations induced by CAP. XRD suggested that, despite the enhancements in crystallinity, the starch primarily remained in an amorphous state in CAP-pretreated samples. Following deep frying process, CLSM observations showcased distinct oil distribution patterns in CAP-pretreated samples. Additionally, the assessment of oil absorption revealed that CAP treatments at 60 kV for 5 and 10 min were more effective in reducing oil absorption compared to the CAP treatment prolonged for 15 min, as well as the untreated sample. However, a significant reduction in acrylamide levels was observed in CAP-pretreated fried potato strips, particularly at 60 kV for 15 min. Moreover, this study unveiled substantial color variations in fried potato strips due to CAP pretreatment (p < 0.05). After 14 days of storage, brightness increased significantly with prolonged CAP exposure up to 15 min, while redness and yellowness experienced a noticeable reduction. Sensory evaluation also demonstrated no significant difference between CAP-pretreated and untreated ones, with CAP-treated fried potato strips (60 kV, 15 min) showing higher overall acceptability. In summary, our research underscores the positive influence of CAP pretreatment on the quality and safety of deep-fried potato products. Looking ahead, to address concerns regarding oil absorption, future studies could explore additional strategies such as optimizing CAP parameters or integrating post-treatment techniques to further minimize oil uptake without compromising other quality attributes. Overall, our findings underscore the viability of CAP pretreatment as a promising approach to enhance both the quality and safety of deep-fried potato products, offering insights for the development of healthier and more appealing food options.

CRediT authorship contribution statement

Leila Nateghi: Writing – review & editing. Elahesadat Hosseini: Methodology, Writing – review & editing. Mohammad Ali Fakheri: Data curation, Formal analysis.

Declaration of competing interest

The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

Footnotes

Appendix A

Supplementary data to this article can be found online at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fochx.2024.101194.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

The following are the Supplementary data to this article:

Supplementary data 1
mmc1.docx (15.8KB, docx)

Data availability

Data will be made available on request.

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Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Supplementary Materials

Supplementary data 1
mmc1.docx (15.8KB, docx)

Data Availability Statement

Data will be made available on request.

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