Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Plants logoLink to Plants
. 2024 Feb 8;13(4):481. doi: 10.3390/plants13040481

Phytochemistry, Bioactivity, and Ethnopharmacology of the Genus Lepechinia Willd. (Lamiaceae): A Review

Jorge Ramírez 1,*, Gianluca Gilardoni 1, Matteo Radice 2, Vladimir Morocho 1
Editor: Xun Liao
PMCID: PMC10893467  PMID: 38498420

Abstract

The genus Lepechinia (Lamiaceae) involves several aromatic shrubs that are distributed only in the American continent, inhabiting mountain areas, mainly in the Andean region of South America. Based on the PRISMA approach, we selected and critically analyzed 48 research articles. From a phytochemical point of view, most of the secondary metabolites reported in Lepechinia spp. are terpenes and terpenoids, with a few exceptions comprising flavonoids and other shikimic acid derivatives. On the one hand, sesquiterpenoids of the guajane, aromadendrane, eudesmane, and cadinane groups are characteristic of essential oils, together with (E)-β-caryophyllene as the main representative of its chemical family. On the other hand, abietane diterpenoids are the prevalent compounds described in non-volatile fractions. Many biological activities and traditional medical uses have been reported for both pure metabolites and complex mixtures (e.g., essential oils). Regarding ethno-medical uses, the treatment of muscle pain, headache, toothache, diabetes mellitus, uterine tumors, uterine infections, and diarrhea has been reported. Concerning their verified biological activities, insecticidal, antifungal, antioxidant, and anticholinesterase properties have been described. Furthermore, some data concerning anti-herpetic activity have been reported.

Keywords: Lepechinia, guajanes, aromadendranes, eudesmanes, cadinanes, abietanes

1. Introduction

Biodiversity has, for a long time, been the main source of pharmaceutical products, through the use of medicinal plants. Today, natural products still sometimes provide inspiration to chemists regarding the design of new pharmaceutical active principles, and, in many countries, vegetal drugs constitute the main source of traditional medicines [1].

Lamiaceae, one of the most important herbal families, incorporates a wide variety of plants, most of them characterized by biological and medical applications. This family comprises 224 genera and more than 5600 species distributed across the world. The best-known members of this family belong to a group of medicinal and aromatic plants, including the genus Lepechinia [2].

The genus Lepechinia Willd consists of 43 species that grow from Northern California in the western USA to central Argentina in South America [3,4,5,6]. Lepechinia spp. range from perennial herbs to shrubs, are rarely gynodioecious or dioecious, and are often aromatic; their leaves range from entire to toothed and are often rugose; and they have terminal and often axillary inflorescence [4,7]. A detailed bibliographic study was performed, including revision of papers from the years 1948 to 2023 regarding the genus Lepechinia. In this research, 64 plant species were mentioned, according to the botanical literature [8]. Focusing on these data, the name of genera and all the scientific names of the species were selected.

The goal of this review is to provide information on the ethnomedical uses, phytochemistry, and biological activities of different Lepechinia spp.

2. Research Strategies and Literature Sources

The present review was developed according to the PRISMA guidelines [9]. The data included in this paper have been retrieved using the keywords, “Lepechinia medicinal plants”, “Lepechinia phytochemistry”, “Lepechinia ethomedicine uses”, “Lepechinia essential oils”, and “Lepechinia biological studies” in the following electronic databases: PubMed (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/, accessed on 30 September 2023) ScienceDirect (https://www.sciencedirect.com/, accessed on 30 September 2023), SciFinder (https://scifinder.cas.org/, accessed on 30 September 2023), SciELO (https://scielo.org/, accessed on 30 September 2023), and Scopus (https://www.scopus.com/, accessed on 30 September 2023). In order to manage all the bibliographic references, Mendeley Desktop software version 1.19.8 was used. Three reviewers extracted data independently, avoiding the duplication of data, and they searched for and selected all key words individually. The process of datamining is synthetized in the flowchart in Figure 1. When a scientific paper could not be found online, we asked the authors to send it to us. For the final step of the study, articles in English and Spanish were selected, together with data from patents. Congress abstracts and symposiums were excluded because they were considered not sufficiently complete to warrant an exhaustive comparison with full articles.

Figure 1.

Figure 1

Open in a new tab

Flowchart for the search process and selection of the studies considered for the review.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Compounds Isolated from Lepechinia spp. through Solvent Extraction and Their Biological Activities

Phytochemical investigation of Lepechinia spp. has shown the presence of tricyclic diterpenes, flavonoids, pentacyclic triterpenes, etc. [5,6]. Two know pentacyclic triterpenes, ursolic acid (1) and oleanolic acid (2), a new diterpene (3), its methyl ester (4), and one natural endoperoxide (5), have been isolated from L. caulescens. In another research work, 7β-Hydroxy-abieta-8(14)-en-18-oic 9α,13α-endoperoxide (6) was also isolated from the same plant [6,10,11]. Compounds 1 and 2 produced a significant vasodilator effect in a concentration-dependent and endothelium dependent-manner [12]. Ursolic acid is probably the most extensively studied molecule among those mentioned above, with potential applications of ursolic acid and its derivatives as anti-tumour agents; there are also several patents filed [13,14,15,16]. Finally, recent studies performed by Al-kuraishy et al. showed a preliminary result concerning the control of hyperinflammation and oxidative stress in SARS-CoV-2 [17]. Spathulenol (7), 9α,13α-epidioxyabiet-8(14)-en-18-oic acid methyl ester (8), dehydroabietic acid (9), and 9β-hydroxydehydroabietyl alcohol (10) (Figure 2, compounds 1–10) were also isolated from L. caulescens [10] and showed spasmolytic activity.

Figure 2.

Figure 2

Open in a new tab

Compounds isolated from L. caulescens.

From the aerial parts of L. meyeni, the abietane diterpenes salvicanol (11), isosalvicanol (12), 12-formyl-11-hydroxy-abieta-8,11,13-trien-2-oic acid methylester (13), pisiferanol (14), and carnosic acid methyl ester (15) (Figure 3, compounds 11–15) have been isolated. Carnosic acid is the main diterpenoid in L. hastata [18].

Figure 3.

Figure 3

Open in a new tab

Compounds isolated from L. mayenii and L. hastata.

From the aerial parts of Sphacele chamaedryoides, (synonym L. chamaedryoides) [19], ten abietane diterpenes have been isolated: 6,7-dehydroroyleanone (16), royleanone (17), 7,20-epoxyroyleanone (18), ferruginol (19), taxoquinone (20), horminone (21), carnosol (22), 7-oxo-11,12,14-trihydroxy-abieta-8,11,13-trien-20-al (23), 7-oxo-7a,11,12-trihydroxy-abieta-8,11,13-trien-20-al (24), deoxocarnosol (25), sphatulenol (7), pinocembrin (26), and 5-hydroxy-4′,7-dimethoxyflavone (27) [20] (Figure 4, compounds 16–27). Several compounds present in this plant showed a higher gastroprotective effect than lansoprazole, and the cytotoxic effect of most compounds was measured at fairly high concentrations and lacked cell specificity; instead, compounds 16 and 20 showed selective cytotoxicity against AGS cells and fibroblasts, respectively [20].

Figure 4.

Figure 4

Open in a new tab

Compounds isolated from S. chamaedryoides.

(-)-Spirolepechinene (28) is a new spirosesquiterpene that was isolated from L. bullata together with a known sesquiterpene, (-)-premnaspirodiene (29) [21]. From the MeOH extract of L. bullata, three cytotoxic diterpene quinones were also isolated: 6,7-dehydroroyleanone (30), horminone (31), and the new compound 7-O-methylhorminone (32). Compound 31 inhibited the growth of Trypanosoma cruzi [22] (Figure 5, compounds 28–32).

Figure 5.

Figure 5

Open in a new tab

Compounds isolated from L. bullata.

From L. graveolens, collected in Mexico, three antioxidative phenolic compounds have been isolated, namely, luteolin-7-O-glucuronide (33), rosmarinic acid (34), and rosmarinic acid methylester (35) (Figure 6, compounds 33–35) [23]. Rosmarinic acid is undoubtedly the most relevant compound and has been extensively studied for its antimicrobial and antioxidant effects for use in anti-diabetic and potentially dietary supplements in cancer treatment [24,25,26,27].

Figure 6.

Figure 6

Open in a new tab

Compounds isolated from L. graveolens.

Spathulenol (7), angustanoic acid E (36), and 5-hydroxy-4′,7-dimethoxyflavone (27) were isolated from L. radula; (-)-ledol (37), (-)-caryophyllene oxide (38), guaiol (39), and carnosol (22) were found in L. paniculata (Figure 7 compounds 36–39) [28].

Figure 7.

Figure 7

Open in a new tab

Compounds isolated from L. radula and L. paniculata.

From L. mutica (Benth.), an endemic plant from Ecuador, the following compounds have been isolated and identified: carnosol (22), viridiflorol (40), ursolic acid (1), oleanolic acid (2), chrysothol (41), and 5-hydroxy-4′,7-dimethoxyflavone (27) [29]. Carnosol seems to be active against the “blast disease” caused by the fungus Pyricularia oryzae; furthermore, it has shown a promising selective inhibitory activity against butyrylcholinesterase [29,30]. Verbascoside (42) has been isolated form L. speciosa [31] (Figure 8, compounds 40–42).

Figure 8.

Figure 8

Open in a new tab

Compounds isolated from L. mutica and L. speciosa.

3.2. Composition and Biological Activities of Essential Oils from Genus Lepechinia

Sesquiterpenes, diterpenes, triterpenes, and flavonoids have been isolated from different species of this genus. Some species are used for their anti-tumoral and insulin-mimetic properties, to treat uterine infections, or to calm stomach pains [32]. Regarding the volatile essential oil components, 18 species of the genus Lepechinia have been studied so far; they are: L. bullata [21], L. betonicifolia [33,34], L. calycina [35], L. caulescens [36], L. conferta [32], L. chamaedryoides [37,38], L. floribunda [39,40,41,42], L. graveolens [41], L. heteromorfa [28], L. meyeni [41,43,44], L. mutica [45,46,47], L. paniculata [48,49], L. radula [50], L. salviaefolia [51], L. salvifolia [52], L. schiedeana [53,54,55], L. urbanii [56], and L. vulcanicola [52]. Given the heterogeneity of the compounds identified in the Lepechinia spp., it is not possible to establish a characteristic pattern of compounds for the genus. In Ecuador, the essential oils of four species belonging to the genus Lepechinia have been studied [28,45,46,47,48,49,50]. In Table 1, we have reported the main volatile compositions and biological activities from Lepechinia spp., and, in Figure 9, the structures of the main compounds identified in their essential oils are shown: armomadendrene (43), viridiflorene (44) β-selinene (45), ledyl acetate (46), β-caryophyllene (47), g-cadinene (48), ledol (49), (-)-palustrol (50), (-)-spirolepechinene (51), α-humulene (52), α-copaene (53), d-cadinene (54), borneol (55), 1,8-cineole (56), camphene (57), bornyl acetate (58), camphor (59), d-3-carene (60), β-phellandrene (61), limonene (62), α-pinene (63), β-pinene (64), o-cymene (65), m-cymene (66), and p-cymene (67).

Table 1.

Main compounds and biological activities in essential oils from Lepechinia spp.

Lepechinia spp. Place of Collection Essential Oil Main Compounds (>5%) Biological Activities
L. bullata Santo
Domingo (Estate of Mérida, Venezuela)		 Leaves (hydrodistillation) (-)-spirolepechinene (20%), (-)-premnaspirodiene (45%) [21] -
L. betonicifolia Bucaramanga (Colombia) and Loja (Ecuador) Aerial parts (Microwave-assisted hydrodistillation) Limonene (27.5%), a-pinene (19.4%), β-pinene (9.5%), and trans-β-caryophyllene (6.8%) [33]
β-pinene (30.45%), sabinene (27.98%), α-pinene (4.97%), β-phellandrene (4.79%), E-caryophyllene (4.44%), and limonene (3.84%) [34]		 Registers repellency percentages > 90% after 2 and 4 h against Tribolium castaneum [33]
EO exerted a strong inhibitory effect over the AChE enzyme, with an IC50 value of 74.97 ± 1.17 lg/mL [34]
L. calycina California (North America), University of California Botanical Gardens - 1,8-cineole (19.7%), camphor (17.5%), d-3-carene (17.4%), camphene (7.8%), α-pinene
(6.5%), and
caryophyllene (5.7%) [35]		 -
L. caulescens Michoacán (México) Aerial parts Borneol (16.38%), camphor (15.16%), trans-caryophyllene (15.14%), spathulenol (8.51%), and aromadendrene (8.01%) [36] Active against some strains of Vibrio cholerae [36]
L. conferta Páramo of La Negra (Venezuela) Leaves and flowers (hydrodistillation) The concentration of sesquiterpenes is slightly higher in the flowers (57.5%) than in the leaves (53.5%); the most abundant constituents are the same in both: ledol (28.9% and 24.2%), δ3-carene (10.5% and 11.0%), β-phellandrene (11.7% and 9.7%), and aromadendrene (3.6% and 4.5%), respectively [32] -
L. chamaedryoides Tomé (Concepción, Chile) Aerial parts (hydrodistillation) α-phellandrene (13.0%), β-caryophyllene (10.3%), T-cadinol
(10.4%), spathulenol (6.4%), limonene (6.0%), and
g-cadinene (5.9%) [37]		 Insecticidal activity on Diptera larvae, Drosophila melanogaster Meigen [36]
L. floribunda Cordoba, San Luis, and Buenos Aires Provinces (Argentina) [39,40,42] and Mizque (Bolivia) [41] Aerial parts (hydrodistillation) 1,8-cineole (27.5%), camphene (16.6%), and camphor (12.9%) for L. floribunda from Argentina [32,39,40]. Bornyl acetate (11–12%), β-caryophyllene (9–10%), and camphene (5.7%) for L. floribunda from Bolivia [41] Anti-quorum sensing (QS) [39] and antimicrobial activity against Paenibacillus larvae [40]
L. graveolens Cochabamba region of Chapare (Inkachaca-Bolivia) Aerial parts (hydrodistillation) β-caryophyllene (22.1%), d-cadinene (6.1%), α-humulene (5.6%), β-phellandrene (5.3%), and g-cadinene (5.3%) [41] -
L. heteromorfa Saruguro, Province of
Loja (Ecuador)		 Leaves (hydrodistillation) Viridiflorene (27.3%), (-)-Ledol (21.2%), Spirolepechinene and (E)-β-caryophyllene (7.1% each), and allo-aromadendrene (6.1%) [28] -
L. meyenii Arani (Cochabamba, Bolivia) [41,43]
San Martín de Porras (Perú) [44]		 Leaves (hydrodistillation) β-pinene (12.6%) and limonene (~5%) [43].
β-Pinene (12.6%), α-pinene (9.7%), and d-3-carene (6.9%) were the main constituents of the A oil, whereas α-pinene (25.0%), β-pinene (9.2%), and limonene (8.3%) were the most important products in the B oil. In both cases, tau-cadinol and epi-α-bisabolol (~9–12% each) were the main constituents; g-cadinene (~5–6%) was the main constituent in both oils [41]. α-Pinene (29.87%), Eucalyptol (13.25%), and β-Pinene (9.64%) [43]		 Antioxidant activity [44]
L. mutica Cerro el Villonaco (Loja, Ecuador) [45]
Quilanga Region in Loja Province, Ecuador [29,46,47] 		Leaves and flowers (hydrodistillation) β-phellandrene (30%), camphene (13%), limonene (8%), 3-carene (6%), α-pinene (6%), and isocaryophyllene (5%) [44]. Shyobunol (10.80%), D3-carene (8.69%), d-cadinene (6.96%), and globulol (5.91%) [46,47]
δ-3-carene (24.2%), eudesm-7(11)-en-4-ol (13.0%), thujopsan-2-α-ol (11.9%), β-pinene (8.0%), and valerianol (5.2%) for the flower essential oil [29]		 Moderate in vitro activity against five fungal strains, especially against M. canis, a causal agent for pet and human infections [46]. Promissory acaricidal activity against larvae and engorged adult females of the common cattle tick, Rhipicephalus microplus [47]
L. paniculata Barrio Acacana of San Lucas (Loja, Ecuador) [48]. El Tablon (Loja, Ecuador) [49] Leaves and flowers (hydrodistillation and steam distillation) Aromadendrene (24.6%), viridiflorene (12.4%), β-selinene (7.4%), valencene (6.7%), and β-phellandrene (7.7%) [48]. 1,8-Cineole (18.73%), β-Pinene (16.27%), δ-3-Carene (12.44%), α-Pinene (11.10%), (E)-Caryophyllene (9.88%), β-Phellandrene (8.62%), and Guaiol (8.58%) [49] Moderate inhibitory activity against anticholinesterase activity, with IC50 values of 38.2 ± 2.9 mg/mL against AChE and 47.4 ± 2.3 mg/mL against BuChE, whereas in the EO of the flowers, the inhibitory activity was much more marked, with IC50 values of 28.2 ± 1.8 µg/mL against AChE and 28.8 ± 1.5 µg/mL against BuChE [49]
L. radula Guachanamá (Loja, Ecuador) Aerial parts (hydrodistillation) δ-3-carene (19.9%), β-pinene (17.0%), (E)-β-caryophyllene (9.7%), and (E-E)-α-farnesene (9.4%) [50] Strong antifungal activity against Trichophyton rubrum and Trichophyton mentagrophytes [50]
L. salviaefolia Mérida, Venezuela Leaves (hydrodistillation) The major constituents of the palustrol-type (28 samples) were (-)-palustrol (19.1%), β-phellandrene (13.8%), borneol (11.8%), and camphene (7.2%). The oil of the premnaspirodiene-type (27 samples) was dominated by β-phellandrene (13.3%), borneol (12.3%), (-)-premnaspirodiene (9.4%), and cainphene (8.5%). The presence of a third chemotype (5 samples) with d-3-carene (12.9%), T-cadinol (9.1%), and borneol (8.4%) [51] -
L. salvifolia Sogamoso, Boyacá, and Bogotá D.C., Cundinamarca, Colombia Whole plant (microwave-radiation-assisted hydrodistillation (MWHD)) Camphor (10.3%), Limonene (9.7%), p-Mentha-1(7),8-diene (7.4%), α-Pinene (6.9%), γ-Terpinene (6.7%), Camphene (5.9%), β-Pinene (5.3%), and trans-Caryophyllene (5.1%) [52] Moderate antiviral activity against human herpes viruses (HHV-1 and HHV-2) at the concentration of 100 mg/mL [52]
L. schiedeana Herbario Nacional Colombiano, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá, Colombia Whole plant (steam distillation (SD), simultaneous steam distillation–solvent extraction (SDE), supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) and microwave-assisted solvent extraction (MWE)) [52] Ledol (36.9% for SD), d-3-Carene (22.0% for SDE), β-Pinene (8.04% for SDE), α-Terpinene (6.1% for SDE), and Myrcene (~5% for SD) [53]. In other research: Δ3-carene (21.4%), ledol (16.3%), β-pinene (11.3%), β-phellandrene (11.1%), and γ-terpinene (9.5%) [53] Exhibited in vitro antioxidant activity [53,54]. Antioxidants BHA, vitamin E, and Trolox. The essential oils had a stronger protective effect against lipid peroxidation than BHA, vitamin E, and Trolox within the range of concentrations examined (1–20 g L–1) [55]
L. urbanii La Vega, Dominican Republic Leaves (steam distillation) d-car-3-ene (32.55%), α-copaene (13.82), and d- cadinene (12.51) [56] -
L. vulcanicola Bogotá D.C., Cundinamarca, Colombia Whole plant (microwave-radiation-assisted hydrodistillation (MWHD)) Limonene (18.9%), Germacrene D (10.4%), 1-Octen-3-ol (8.8%), trans-β-Caryophyllene (8.7%), α-Pinene (8.2%), and Bicyclogermacrene (5%) [52] Anti-herpetic activity, with Rf values of 1 × 102 and 1 × 103 against one Tissue Culture Infectious Dose 50 (TCID50) of HHV-1 and HHV-2 [52]
Open in a new tab

Figure 9.

Figure 9

Open in a new tab

Compounds identified in the essential oils of Lepechinia spp.

The biological activity of an essential oil is mainly due to the synergistic effect of its compounds, so it is difficult to attribute the effect of in vivo and in vitro tests to a single molecule or predominant compound. However, some of the molecules listed a few times in Table 1 are common in various essential oils and have been the subjects of several studies. Limonene is a monocyclic monoterpene that may be extracted abundantly from citrus peel waste or obtained via microbial biosynthesis [57,58]; this compounds and its derivatives are present as common additives in several markets, such as cosmetics, food, pharmaceuticals, cosmetics, and biobased polymers [57,59,60]. 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol) is another of the most investigated compounds in recent years, and various pieces of evidence point to its potential as a phytochemical treatment for respiratory disorders, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), due to its mucolytic, anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial, bronchodilator, and antioxidant activities [61,62,63].

3.3. Ethnopharmacology and Traditional Uses for the Genus Lepechinia

Several Lepechinia spp. are valued in the horticultural trade, and North and South American indigenous groups commonly use Lepechinia plants for medicinal purposes, such as the treatment of muscle pain, headache, and toothache [45], diabetes mellitus, uterine tumors, uterine infections, and diarrhea [5,31]. L. caulescens is the most mentioned species concerning folk medicine, and its traditional use has been reported in cases of stomach ailments, hypertension, diabetes, dysmenorrhea, and gastrointestinal infections. The aqueous infusion, obtained via decoction from the whole plant, is the most common traditional beverage [6,10,39,55,56]. An extract from L. caulescens has been patented as a cosmetic agent [64,65]. Also, the teas of L. graveolens and L. hastata (root extract) have been mentioned in the treatment of stomach ailments [20] and uterine infections, respectively [65,66]. The decoction of the leaves of L. meyenii is used as an antispasmodic, digestive, and carminative agent and for the treatment of coughs and diarrhea [66,67]. Regarding L. schiediana, two studies have cited the use of it in tea in folk medicine as a diuretic, as a remedy for kidney infections and stomach illness, and for the treatment of skin irritation [43,68]. The leaves of L. mutica are used to treat headaches, nervous affections, and startle disease [45,46,69]. The leaves of L. radula are used to treat “mal de aire” and aches in muscles and bones [50,69]. Regarding L. paniculata, it is used to treat headaches via the direct application of its buds to the head; its flowers are used for the treatment of nervous system affection and for evil air “mal aire’ and “espanto” [48,49]. In Table 2, there are more details about the ethnopharmacology and traditional uses of some Lepechinia spp.

Table 2.

Ethnopharmacology and traditional uses of Lepechinia spp.

Scientific Name Common Name Ethnopharmacology and Traditional Uses
L. caulescens Commonly known as “Bretónica” [70] Different morphological structures and preparations are used for gastrointestinal ailments, diarrhea, and hypoglycemia [36]; for vomiting, diabetes, hypertension, and related diseases [71,72,73]; for dysmenorrhea and as an abortifacient [10]; and for stomach ailments [6]
L. chamaedryoides Known as “Alhuelahuén” or “Male sage” Emmenagogue and anti-inflammatory properties as an infusion [38]
L. floribunda Local name: “Salvia morada” [42] Antiseptic properties [74]
L. graveolens White sage As an infusion for the treatment of stomach ailments [23]
L. hastata Locally known as “Chicura de la Sierra”, “Lavanda”, and “Lengua de buey” Uterine infections as a root decoction [73]
L. meyeni “Pampa salvia”, “Saluya” [41] Treatment of coughs and diarrhea, antispasmodic [66]; digestive and carminative [67]
L. mutica “Shalshon” in Kichwa or “Casa casa” in Spanish “Espanto” (startle) [72]
L. paniculata “Yayllon” or “Llanllum” in Kichwa “Mal de aire”, a sort of evil eye, and against headache; flower infusions are used to treat nervous diseases [72]
L. radula “Shalshon” or “Zhalshon” in Kichwa The leaves are used to treat “mal de aire” and aches in muscles and bones [72]
L. schiedeana “Salvia negra” Skin irritations, muscle fatigue, and as a diuretic [53]; decoction used as a remedy for stomachache and kidney infections [71]
Open in a new tab

3.4. Geography and Aim of the Studies

Using these criteria [9], we were able to collect 48 papers, for which 52 different studies had been carried out on 20 species of the Lepechinia genus (Table 3) in relation to essential oils, phytochemistry, and different biological activities, such as: insecticide-repellent activity, anticholinesterase activity, spasmolytic effects, vasorelaxant activity, anti-vibrio cholerae activity, gastroprotective effects, cytotoxicity activity, antibacterial activity, antifungal activity, and antioxidant activity, among other. Most species of the genus Lepechinia have been investigated for their antioxidant activity (see Table 3 and Figure 10). On the one hand, the predominance of antioxidant activity can be explained by the relatively easiness of these assays and the fact that practically all vegetal species contain important amounts of polyphenolic compounds, typically characterized by this property. On the other hand, almost 10% of all the reported activities corresponded to the cholinergic capacity of essential oils or purified metabolites. Most of these studies were conducted in Ecuador.

Table 3.

Geographic origin and type studies conducted in Lepechinia spp., including phytochemical works.

Country Lepechinia spp. Part of Plant Extraction Type of Study Reference
Colombia, Ecuador L. betonicifolia Aerial parts Hydrodistillation, microwave-assisted hydrodistillation (MWHD) Essential oil and biological activity (insecticide repellent, anticholinesterase activity) [33,34]
Colombia, Venezuela L. bullata Leaves Hydrodistillation, petroleum ether (PE)
extract		 Essential oil and phytochemistry [21,22]
United States L. calycina Aerial parts Hydrodistillation Essential oil [35]
Mexico L. caulescens Aerial parts, inflorescences, leaves Acetone, dichloromethane, hexane, ethyl Acetate (EtOAc), and methanol (MeOH) extracts, hydrodistillation phytochemistry, biological acivitity (spasmolytic effect, vasorelaxant activity, anti-vibrio cholerae activity) [6,10,11,12,36,65,73]
Chile L. chamaedryoides Aerial parts, leaves Hydrodistillation, petroleum ether (PE), and EtOAc extracts Essential oil, biological acivitity (gastroprotective effect, cytotoxicity activity, and insecticidal activity) [20,37,38]
Venezuela L. conferta Leaves, flowers Hydrodistillation Essential oil [32]
Argentina, Bolivia L. floribunda Aerial parts, dry flowers, leaves Hydrodistillation, steam distillation (SD) Essential oil and biological activity (antimicrobial activity, antibacterial activity) [39,40,41,42,74]
Bolivia L. graveolens Aerial parts, leaves MeOH extract, steam distillation (SD) Biological activity (antioxidant activity), essential oil, phytochemistry [23,41]
Mexico, United States L. hastata Aerial parts Acetone extract, petroleum ether (PE), chloroform and ethanol extracts Phytochemistry, biological activity (antimicrobial activity) [18,67,68]
Ecuador L. heteromorpha Aerial parts Hydrodistillation Essential oil [28]
Bolivia, Peru L. meyenii Leaves, aerial parts Acetone extract, steam distillation (SD), ethanol, MeOH and water extracts Essential oil, phytochemistry, biological activity (antimicrobial activity, antioxidant activity), phenolic compounds) [18,41,43,44,69,70]
Ecuador L. mutica Leaves and flowers Ethyl Acetate (EtOAc) extract and hydrodistillation Essential oil, phytochemistry, and biological activity (Antifungal activity, anticholinesterase activity, acaricidal activity) [29,30,45,46,47,75]
Ecuador L. paniculata Aerial parts, leaves Ethyl Acetate (EtOAc) extract, hydrodistillation Essential oil, phytochemistry [28,48,49]
Ecuador L. radula Aerial parts, leaves Ethyl Acetate (EtOAc) extract, hydrodistillation Essential oil, phytochemistry [28,50]
Venezuela L. salviaefolia Leaves Hydrodistillation Essential oil [51]
Colombia L. salvifolia Whole plants Microwave-radiation-assisted hydrodistillation (MWHD) Essential oil and biological activity (antiviral activity) [52]
Colombia, Costa Rica L. schiedeana Aerial parts, leaves, flowers, whole plants Hydrodistillation, steam distillation (SD) Essential oil and biological activity (antiviral activity, antioxidant activity, radical scavenging activity) [53,54,55,71]
Brazil L. speciosa Aerial parts Ethanol extract Phytochemistry and biological activity (antiviral and cytotoxic activity) [5,31]
Dominican Republic L. urbanii Leaves Steam distillation (SD) Essential oil [56]
Colombia L. vulcanicola Whole plants Microwave-radiation-assisted hydrodistillation (MWHD) Biological activity (antiviral activity) [52]
Open in a new tab

Figure 10.

Figure 10

Open in a new tab

Diversity of biological activity in Lepechinia spp. The percentages refer to the corresponding articles compared to the total number of biological activity reports.

The studies have been distributed mainly in Ecuador (13), Mexico (9), Colombia (7), and Bolivia (5), with several in Argentina (4), Peru (4), Chile (3), Venezuela (3), the United States (2), Costa Rica, and the Dominican Republic (1); see Figure 11. About one quarter of the total phytochemical studies on the genus Lepechinia were carried out in Ecuador, where an important number of endemic and native species have attracted relevant academic interest over the last ten years. This interest coincides with a period of development in the scientific research on all fields of biodiversity in Ecuador.

Figure 11.

Figure 11

Open in a new tab

Geographical origin of studies in Lepechinia spp. Percentages refer to the corresponding articles compared to the total number of geographical origin reports.

4. Conclusions

This review demonstrates the great potential of the genus Lepechinia as a source of interesting secondary metabolites, often characterized by relevant biological activities. Almost all the compounds described in Lepechinia spp. were terpenes and terpenoids, with few exceptions among flavonoids and other shikimic acid derivatives. On the one hand, sesquiterpenoids of the guajane, aromadendrane, eudesmane, and cadinane families dominated the essential oils, together with (E)-β-caryophyllene as the main representative of its group. On the other hand, non-volatile fractions were characterized by diterpenoids of the abietane family. A wide spectrum of biological activities and traditional medical uses were reported for both pure metabolites and complex mixtures (e.g., essential oils).

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to the Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja (UTPL) for supporting this investigation and open access publication.

Author Contributions

Conceptualization, G.G., V.M. and J.R.; writing—original draft preparation, J.R., V.M. and G.G.; literature retrieval, J.R. and G.G.; review supervision and editing, G.G. and M.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

Funding Statement

This research received no external funding.

Footnotes

Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

References

  • 1.The World Health Organization WHO. [(accessed on 9 February 2023)]. Available online: https://www.who.int/initiatives/who-global-centre-for-traditional-medicine.
  • 2.Uritu C.M., Mihai C.T., Stanciu G.D., Dodi G., Stratulat T.A., Luca A., León M.M., Stefanescu R., Bild V., Melnic S., et al. Medicinal Plants of the Family Lamiaceae in Pain Therapy: A Review. Pain Res. Manag. 2018;2018:7801543. doi: 10.1155/2018/7801543. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 3.Drew B.T., Sytsma K.J. The South American radiation of Lepechinia (Lamiaceae): Phylogenetics, divergence times and evolution of dioecy. Bot. J. Linn. Soc. 2013;171:171–190. doi: 10.1111/j.1095-8339.2012.01325.x. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 4.Epling C. A Synopsis of the Tribe Lepechinieae (Labiatae) Brittonia. 1948;6:352–364. doi: 10.2307/2804837. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 5.Esteves P.F., Kuster R.M., Barbi N.S., Menezes F.d.S. Chemical Composition and Cytotoxic Activity of Lepechinia speciosa (St. Hill) Epling. Lat. Am. J. Pharm. 2010;29:38–44. [Google Scholar]
  • 6.Delgado G., Hernández J., Chávez M.I., Alvarez L., Gonzaga V., Martínez E. Di-and triterpenpoid acids from Lepechinia caulescens. Phytochemistry. 1994;37:1119–1121. doi: 10.1016/S0031-9422(00)89540-0. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 7.Jorgensen P., León-Yánez S. Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of Ecuador. Missouri Botanical Garden; St. Louis, MO, USA: 1999. [Google Scholar]
  • 8.The World Flora. [(accessed on 7 January 2022)]. Available online: https://www.worldfloraonline.org/search?query=Lepechinia.
  • 9.Page M.J., McKenzie J.E., Bossuyt P., Boutron I., Hoffmann T.C., Mulrow C.D., Shamseer L., Tetzlaff J.M., Akl E., Brennan S.E., et al. The Prisma 2020 Statement: An Updated Guideline for Reporting Systematic Reviews. Med. Flum. 2021;57:444–465. doi: 10.21860/medflum2021_264903. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 10.Perez-Hernandez N., Ponce-Monter H., Medina J.A., Joseph-Nathan P. Spasmolytic effect of constituents from Lepechinia caulescens on rat uterus. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2008;115:30–35. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2007.08.044. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 11.Delgado G., Sánchez E., Hernández J., Chávez M.I., Alvarez L., Martínez E. Abietanoid acid from Lepechinia caulescens. Phytochemistry. 1992;31:3159–3161. doi: 10.1016/0031-9422(92)83466-C. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 12.Aguirre-Crespo F., Vergara-Galicia J., Villalobos-Molina R., López-Guerrero J.J., Navarrete-Vázquez G., Estrada-Soto S. Ursolic acid mediates the vasorelaxant activity of Lepechinia caulescens via NO release in isolated rat thoracic aorta. Life Sci. 2006;79:1062–1068. doi: 10.1016/j.lfs.2006.03.006. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 13.Zafar S., Khan K., Hafeez A., Irfan M., Armaghan M., Rahman A.u., Gürer E.S., Sharifi-Rad J., Butnariu M., Bagiu I.C., et al. Ursolic acid: A natural modulator of signaling networks in different cancers. Cancer Cell Int. 2022;22:399. doi: 10.1186/s12935-022-02804-7. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 14.Panda S.S., Thangaraju M., Lokeshwar B.L. Ursolic Acid Analogs as Potential Therapeutics for Cancer. Molecules. 2022;27:8981. doi: 10.3390/molecules27248981. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 15.Khwaza V., Oyedeji O.O., Aderibigbe B.A. Ursolic acid-based derivatives as potential anti-cancer agents: An update. Int. J. Mol. Sci. 2020;21:5920. doi: 10.3390/ijms21165920. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 16.Hussain H., Green I.R., Ali I., Khan I.A., Ali Z., Al-Sadi A.M., Ahmed I. Ursolic acid derivatives for pharmaceutical use: A patent review (2012–2016) Expert Opin. Ther. Pat. 2017;27:1061–1072. doi: 10.1080/13543776.2017.1344219. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 17.Al-kuraishy H.M., Al-Gareeb A.I., Negm W.A., Alexiou A., Batiha G.E.S. Ursolic acid and SARS-CoV-2 infection: A new horizon and perspective. Inflammopharmacology. 2022;30:1493–1501. doi: 10.1007/s10787-022-01038-3. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 18.Bruno M., Savona G., Piozzi F., De la Torre M., Rodríguez B., Marlier M. Abietane diterpenoids from Lepechinia meyeni and Lepechinia hastata. Phytochemistry. 1991;30:2339–2343. doi: 10.1016/0031-9422(91)83645-2. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 19.The International Plant Names Index. [(accessed on 7 January 2022)]. Available online: https://www.ipni.org/n/1090930-2.
  • 20.Areche C., Schmeda-hirschmann G., Theoduloz C., Rodrı J.A. Gastroprotective effect and cytotoxicity of abietane diterpenes from the Chilean Lamiaceae Sphacele chamaedryoides (Balbis) Briq. J. Pharm. Pharmacol. 2009;61:1689–1697. doi: 10.1211/jpp/61.12.0015. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 21.Eggers M.D., Sinnwell V., Stahl-biskup E. (-)-Spirolepechinene, a spirosesquiterpene from Lepechinia bullata (Lamiaceae) Phytochemistry. 1999;51:987–990. doi: 10.1016/S0031-9422(99)00048-5. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 22.Jonathan L.T., Che C.-T., Pezzuto J.M., Fong H.H., Farnsworth N.R. 7-0-methylhorminone and other cytotoxic diterpene quinones from Lepechinia Bullata. J. Nat. Prod. 1989;52:571–575. doi: 10.1021/np50063a016. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 23.Parejo I., Caprai E., Bastida J., Viladomat F., Jáuregui O., Codina C. Investigation of Lepechinia graveolens for its antioxidant activity and phenolic composition. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2004;94:175–184. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2004.05.017. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 24.Zhao J., Xu L., Jin D., Xin Y., Tian L., Wang T., Zhao D., Wang Z., Wang J. Rosmarinic Acid and Related Dietary Supplements: Potential Applications in the Prevention and Treatment of Cancer. Biomolecules. 2022;12:1410. doi: 10.3390/biom12101410. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 25.Noor S., Mohammad T., Rub M.A., Raza A., Azum N., Yadav D.K., Hassan M.I., Asiri A.M. Biomedical features and therapeutic potential of rosmarinic acid. Arch. Pharm. Res. 2022;45:205–228. doi: 10.1007/s12272-022-01378-2. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 26.Ngo Y.L., Lau C.H., Chua L.S. Review on rosmarinic acid extraction, fractionation and its anti-diabetic potential. Food Chem. Toxicol. 2018;121:687–700. doi: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.09.064. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 27.Kernou O.N., Azzouz Z., Madani K., Rijo P. Application of Rosmarinic Acid with Its Derivatives in the Treatment of Microbial Pathogens. Molecules. 2023;28:4243. doi: 10.3390/molecules28104243. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 28.Gilardoni G., Ramírez J., Montalván M., Quinche W., León J., Benítez L., Morocho V., Cumbicus N., Bicchi C. Phytochemistry of three ecuadorian lamiaceae: Lepechinia heteromorpha (Briq.) Epling, Lepechinia radula (benth.) epling and Lepechinia paniculata (Kunth) epling. Plants. 2019;8:1. doi: 10.3390/plants8010001. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 29.Ramírez J., Gilardoni G., Ramón E., Tosi S., Picco A.M., Bicchi C., Vidari G. Phytochemical study of the Ecuadorian species Lepechinia mutica (Benth.) epling and high antifungal activity of carnosol against Pyricularia oryzae. Pharmaceuticals. 2018;11:33. doi: 10.3390/ph11020033. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 30.Ramírez J., Suarez A.I., Bec N., Armijos C., Gilardoni G., Larroque C., Vidari G. Carnosol from Lepechinia mutica and tiliroside from Vallea stipularis: Two promising inhibitors of BuChE. Rev. Bras. Farmacogn. 2018;28:559–563. doi: 10.1016/j.bjp.2018.06.003. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 31.Martins F.O., Esteves P.F., Mendes G.S., Barbi N.S., Menezes F.S., Romanos M.T. Verbascoside isolated from Lepechinia speciosa has inhibitory Activity against HSV-1 and HSV-2 in vitro. Nat. Prod. Commun. 2009;4:1693–1696. doi: 10.1177/1934578X0900401217. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 32.Borges R., Rojas L.B., Cegarra J.A., Usubillaga A. Study of the essential oils from the leaves and flowers of Lepechinia conferta (Benth) Epl. Flavour Fragr. J. 2006;21:155–157. doi: 10.1002/ffj.1550. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 33.Caballero-Gallardo K., Olivero-Verbel J., Stashenko E.E. Repellent Activity of Essential Oils and Some of Their Individual Constituents against Tribolium castaneum Herbst. J. Agric. Food Chem. 2011;59:1690–1696. doi: 10.1021/jf103937p. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 34.Calva J., Cartuche L., González S., Montesinos J.V., Morocho V. Chemical composition, enantiomeric analysis and anticholinesterase activity of Lepechinia betonicifolia essential oil from Ecuador. Pharm. Biol. 2022;60:206–211. doi: 10.1080/13880209.2021.2025254. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 35.Lawrence B.M., Morton J.K. Volatile Constituents of Lepechinia calycina. Phytochemistry. 1979;18:1887. doi: 10.1016/0031-9422(79)83082-4. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 36.Avila Acevedo J.G., Muñoz Lóez J.L., Martínez Cortés A., García Bores A., Martínez Cortés G., Peñalosa Castro I. In vitro anti-Vibrio cholerae activity of essential oil from Lepechinia caulescens. Fitoterapia. 2005;76:104–107. doi: 10.1016/j.fitote.2004.10.007. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 37.Valenzuela L., Vila R., Cañigueral S., Adzet T. The essential oil of Sphacele chamaedryoides. Planta Med. 1992;58:273–274. doi: 10.1055/s-2006-961452. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 38.Suazo G., González F., Urbina A., Pastene E., Sáez K., Serri H., Chávez R. Actividad insecticida del aceite esencial de Lepechinia chamaedryoides (Balb.) Epling en Drosophila melanogaster. Gayana Bot. 2012;69:256–266. doi: 10.4067/S0717-66432012000200005. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 39.Pellegrini M.C., Alvarez M.V., Ponce A.G., Cugnata N.M., De Piano F.G., Fuselli S. Anti-quorum sensing and antimicrobial activity of aromatic species from South America. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2014;26:458–465. doi: 10.1080/10412905.2014.947387. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 40.Fuselli S.R., García de la Rosa S.B., Eguaras M.J., Fritz R. Susceptibility of the Honeybee Bacterial Pathogen Paenibacillus larvae to Essential Oils Distilled from Exotic and Indigenous Argentinean Plants. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2008;20:464–470. doi: 10.1080/10412905.2008.9700060. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 41.Lopez Arze J., Collin G., Garneau F., Jean F., Gagnon H. Essential Oils from Bolivia. VI. Lamiaceae: Lepechinia graveolens (Reg.) Epling, L. floribunda (Benth.) Epling, and L. meyeni (Walp.) Epling. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2009;21:36–40. doi: 10.1080/10412905.2009.9700102. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 42.Velasco-Negueruela A., Pérez-Alonso M., Esteban J., Guzmán C., Zygadlo J., Ariza-Espinar L. Essential Oil of Lepechinia floribunda (Benth.) Epl. J. Essent. Oil Res. 1994;6:539–540. doi: 10.1080/10412905.1994.9698446. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 43.Collin G., Garneau F., Gagnon H., Pichette A., Lavoie S. Analysis of Cymenes in Essential Oils: The Case of of Lepechinia meyeni (Walp.) Epling. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2010;22:310–313. doi: 10.1080/10412905.2010.9700333. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 44.Ruiz C., Díaz C., Rojas R. Chemical Composition of Essential Oils from 10 Peruvian aromatic plants. Rev. Soc. Quim. Perú. 2015;81:81–94. [Google Scholar]
  • 45.Malagón O., Vila R., Iglesias J., Zaragoza T., Cañigueral S. Composition of the essential oils of four medicinal plants from Ecuador. Flavour Fragr. J. 2003;18:527–531. doi: 10.1002/ffj.1262. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 46.Ramírez J., Gilardoni G., Jácome M., Montesinos J., Rodolfi M., Guglielminetti M.L., Cagliero C., Bicchi C., Vidari G. Chemical Composition, Enantiomeric Analysis, AEDA Sensorial Evaluation and Antifungal Activity of the Essential Oil from the Ecuadorian Plant Lepechinia mutica Benth (Lamiaceae) Chem. Biodivers. 2017;14:e1700292. doi: 10.1002/cbdv.201700292. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 47.Guzmán L., Malla J.L., Ramírez J., Gilardoni G., Calva J., Hidalgo D., Valarezo E., Rey-Valeirón C. Acaricidal Efficacy of Plants from Ecuador, Ambrosia peruviana (Asteraceae) and Lepechinia mutica (Lamiaceae) against Larvae and Engorged Adult Females of the Common Cattle Tick, Rhipicephalus microplus. Vet. Sci. 2022;9:23. doi: 10.3390/vetsci9010023. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 48.Valarezo E., Castillo A., Guaya D., Morocho V., Malagón O. Chemical composition of essential oils of two species of the Lamiaceae family: Scutellaria volubilis and Lepechinia paniculata from Loja, Ecuador. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2012;24:31–37. doi: 10.1080/10412905.2012.645638. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 49.Panamito M.F., Bec N., Valdivieso V., Salinas M., Calva J., Ramírez J., Larroque C., Armijos C. Chemical Composition and Anticholinesterase Activity of the Essential Oil of Leaves and Flowers from the Ecuadorian Plant Lepechinia paniculata (Kunth) Epling. Molecules. 2021;26:3198. doi: 10.3390/molecules26113198. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 50.Morocho V., Toro M.L., Cartuche L., Guaya D., Valarezo E., Malagón O., Ramírez J. Chemical Composition and Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oil of Lepechinia radula Benth Epling. Rec. Nat. Prod. 2017;11:57–62. [Google Scholar]
  • 51.Eggers M.D., Orsini G., Stahl-biskup E. Composition and Chemical Variation of the Essential Oil of Lepechinia salviaefolia (Kunth) Epl. from Venezuela. J. Essnt. Oil Res. 2001;13:1–4. doi: 10.1080/10412905.2001.9699586. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 52.Brand Y.M., Roa-Linares V.C., Betancur-Galvis L.A., Durán-García D.C., Stashenko E. Antiviral activity of Colombian Labiatae and Verbenaceae family essential oils and monoterpenes on Human Herpes viruses. J. Essent. Oil Res. 2016;28:130–137. doi: 10.1080/10412905.2015.1093556. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 53.Stashenko E.E., Cervantes M., Combariza Y., Fuentes H., Martínez J. HRGC/FID and HRGC / MSD Analysis of the Secondary Metabolites Obtained by Different Extraction Methods from Lepechinia schiedeana, and in Vitro Evaluation of Its Antioxidant Activity. J. High Resol. Chromatogr. 1999;22:343–349. doi: 10.1002/(SICI)1521-4168(19990601)22:6<343::AID-JHRC343>3.0.CO;2-J. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 54.Puertas-Mejía M., Hillebrand S., Stashenko E., Winterhalter P. In vitro radical scavenging activity of essential oils from Columbian plants and fractions from oregano (Origanum vulgare L.) essential oil. Flavour Fragr. J. 2002;17:380–384. doi: 10.1002/ffj.1110. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 55.Stashenko E.E., Puertas M.A., Martínez J.R. SPME determination of volatile aldehydes for evaluation of in-vitro antioxidant activity. Anal. Bioanal. Chem. 2002;373:70–74. doi: 10.1007/s00216-002-1264-4. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 56.Zanoni T.A., Adams R.P. Essential Oils of Plants from Hispaniola: 5. The Volatile Leaf Oil of Lepechinia urbanii (Briq.) Epling (Lamiaceae) Flavour Fragr. J. 1991;6:75–77. doi: 10.1002/ffj.2730060110. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 57.Louisy E., Khodyrieva V., Olivero S., Michelet V., Mija A. Use of Limonene Epoxides and Derivatives as Promising Monomers for Biobased Polymers. ChemPlusChem. 2022;87:e202200190. doi: 10.1002/cplu.202200190. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 58.Ren Y., Liu S., Jin G., Yang X., Zhou Y.J. Microbial production of limonene and its derivatives: Achievements and perspectives. Biotechnol. Adv. 2020;44:107628. doi: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2020.107628. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 59.Eddin L.B., Jha N.K., Meeran M.F.N., Kesari K.K., Beiram R., Ojha S. Neuroprotective potential of limonene and limonene containing natural products. Molecules. 2021;26:4535. doi: 10.3390/molecules26154535. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 60.Anandakumar P., Kamaraj S., Vanitha M.K. D-limonene: A multifunctional compound with potent therapeutic effects. J. Food Biochem. 2021;45:e13566. doi: 10.1111/jfbc.13566. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 61.Hoch C.C., Petry J., Griesbaum L., Weiser T., Werner K., Ploch M., Verschoor A., Multhoff G., Bashiri Dezfouli A., Wollenberg B. 1,8-cineole (eucalyptol): A versatile phytochemical with therapeutic applications across multiple diseases. Biomed. Pharmacother. 2023;167:115467. doi: 10.1016/j.biopha.2023.115467. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 62.Cai Z.M., Peng J.Q., Chen Y., Tao L., Zhang Y.Y., Fu L.Y., Long Q.D., Shen X.C. 1,8-Cineole: A review of source, biological activities, and application. J. Asian Nat. Prod. Res. 2021;23:938–954. doi: 10.1080/10286020.2020.1839432. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 63.Juergens L.J., Worth H., Juergens U.R. New Perspectives for Mucolytic, Anti-inflammatory and Adjunctive Therapy with 1,8-Cineole in COPD and Asthma: Review on the New Therapeutic Approach. Adv. Ther. 2020;37:1737–1753. doi: 10.1007/s12325-020-01279-0. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 64.Tene V., Malagón O., Vita P., Vidari G., Armijos C. An ethnobotanical survey of medicinal plants used in Loja and Zamora-Chinchipe, Ecuador. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2007;111:63–81. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2006.10.032. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 65.Estrada-Soto S., Navarrete-Vázquez G., Léon-Rivera I., Rios M., Aguilar-Guadarrama B., Castillo-España P., Ortiz-Andrade R., Aguirre-Crespo F. Antihypertensive effect of Lepechinia caulescens extract on spontaneously hypertensive rats. Phytopharmacology. 2012;2:170–178. [Google Scholar]
  • 66.Pecher V., Leplanquais V., Lazou K., Dumas M.C. Use of a Lepechinia caulescens Extract as a Cosmetic Agent, and Cosmetic Composition Containing Same. 9023403B2. U.S. Patent. 2009 June 3;
  • 67.Dimayuga R., Garcia S., Nielsen P.H., Christophersen C. Traditional medicine of Baja California sur (Mexico) III. Carnosol. A diterpene antibiotic from Lepechinia hastata. J. Ethnopharmacol. 1991;31:43–48. doi: 10.1016/0378-8741(91)90142-Z. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 68.Encarnación-Dimayuga R., Almada G., Virgen M. Minimum antimicrobial inhibitory concentration of carnosol and of the ethanol extract from Lepichinia hastata (Lamiaceae) Phytomedicine. 1998;5:301–305. doi: 10.1016/S0944-7113(98)80070-6. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 69.Rojas R., Bustamante B., Bauer J., Fernández I., Albán J., Lock O. Antimicrobial activity of selected Peruvian medicinal plants. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2003;88:199–204. doi: 10.1016/S0378-8741(03)00212-5. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 70.Chirinos R., Pedreschi R., Rogez H., Larondelle Y., Campos D. Phenolic compound contents and antioxidant activity in plants with nutritional and/or medicinal properties from the Peruvian Andean region. Ind. Crops Prod. 2013;47:145–152. doi: 10.1016/j.indcrop.2013.02.025. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 71.Cicció J.F., Soto V.H., Poveda L.J. Essential oil of Lepechinia schiedeana (Lamiaceae) from Costa Rica. Rev. Biol. Trop. 1999;47:373–375. doi: 10.15517/rbt.v47i3.19103. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 72.Armijos C., Ramírez J., Salinas M., Vidari G., Suárez A. Pharmacology and Phytochemistry of Ecuadorian Medicinal Plants: An Update and Perspectives. Pharmaceuticals. 2021;14:1145. doi: 10.3390/ph14111145. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 73.Estrada-Soto S., Rodríguez-Avilez A., Castañeda-Ávila C., Castillo-España P., Navarrete-Vázquez G., Hernández L., Aguirre-Crespo F. Spasmolytic action of Lepechinia caulescens is through calcium channel blockade and NO release. J. Ethnopharmacol. 2007;114:364–370. doi: 10.1016/j.jep.2007.08.023. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  • 74.Camina J., Dambolena J.S., Zygadlo J.A., Ashworth L. Cheminal Composition of essential oils of peltate glandular trichomes from leaves and flowers of Lepechinia floribunda (Lamiaceae) Bol. Soc. Argent. Bot. 2018;53:375–384. doi: 10.31055/1851.2372.v53.n3.21312. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  • 75.Solano-Cueva N., Figueroa J.G., Loja C., Armijos C., Vidari G., Ramírez J. A Validated HPLC-UV-ESI-IT-MS Method for the Quantification of Carnosol in Lepechinia mutica, a Medicinal Plant Endemic to Ecuador. Molecules. 2023;28:6701. doi: 10.3390/molecules28186701. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

Associated Data

This section collects any data citations, data availability statements, or supplementary materials included in this article.

Data Availability Statement

Not applicable.

Articles from Plants are provided here courtesy of Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute (MDPI)

RESOURCES