Skip to main content
NCBI home page
Sage Choice logoLink to Sage Choice
. 2022 Nov 25;28(1):83–92. doi: 10.1177/17446295221141947

Enablers to enhance school-based adolescents with intellectual disabilities’ learning: A narrative approach

Rakgadi Grace Malapela 1,✉, Gloria Thupayagale-Tshweneagae 2
PMCID: PMC10916348  PMID: 36427236

Abstract

Society has always understood individuals with intellectual disabilities from a stance of deficiency, resulting in limited expectations and prospects for school-going adolescents with intellectual disabilities. The study used the social model of disability to explore teachers’ perceptions of enablers to enhance school-based adolescents with intellectual disabilities’ learning and took cognisance of a wave of policies aimed at including adolescents with intellectual disabilities in mainstream education. A qualitative narrative approach was used for the study. Using a narrative methodological framework, unstructured interview questions were posed to elicit teachers’ perceptions of enablers to enhance adolescents with intellectual disabilities’ learning. A non-probability purposive sampling method was used to select teachers working with school-based learners with intellectual disabilities. Five themes emerged from the analysis: therapeutic setting; learners’ resilience; parental support; teaching strategies; and community involvement as enablers for enhancing learning for adolescents with intellectual disabilities. Policy implications are also provided in the study.

Keywords: adolescents, intellectual disabilities, narrative approach, perceptions of teachers, school-based learners

Background

Contextual factors influence individuals’ optimum functioning and are either environmental or personal (Jeevanan 2016; Lee & Shute 2010). Personal factors are individuals’ basic features, such as age, sex, gender, and lifestyle (Lee and Shute 2010). The environmental factors include physical characteristics such as home, school, the community, and the minute elements of the environment, such as size, noise, and acceptability by members of the community. These factors are intertwined; one is dependent on the other and can serve as enablers or challenges for individuals, especially school-going adolescents with intellectual disabilities (Lee and Shute 2010).

Learner diversity should be acknowledged and accepted based on what the learners can be supported to achieve (Possi and Milinga, 2017). Individuals and the environment can therefore play a role in promoting the optimal functioning of those with different abilities (Cvijetic et al., 2021). However, individuals’ diversity is often not supported in terms of the provision of well-equipped settings and trained teachers for special and mainstream schools in developing countries such as South Africa (Malapela et al., 2020).

As of 2011, there have been more than 200,000 individuals living with intellectual disabilities in South Africa (the setting of this study), making it the country with the highest number of individuals with intellectual disabilities (Du Plessis, 2011). Moreover, while the South African education system is based on the tenets of equal citizenship, with equal rights to amenities such as schools, research has shown that many individuals with intellectual disabilities are not enrolled in schools. Reviewed literature reflects that a lack of education in communities, legislators and poor funding has created the current situation where few individuals with intellectual disabilities attend special schools (Kleintjes, Mckenzie, Abrahams and Adnams, 2020).

According to the World Health Organization (WHO) and World Bank, intellectual disability is the most prevalent disability globally (WHO and World Bank 2011). Bathgate et al. (2017) reported that 17 out of 1,000 children are born with an intellectual disability, constituting 6.2% of the global population. Although this group is considered a minority, these individuals face numerous and significant challenges based on the chronicity and nature of their disability. Worldwide, adolescents living with intellectual disabilities attend special schools to enhance their cognitive and adaptive functioning; in South Africa, it is a constitutional right of every school-going adolescent to be afforded an opportunity to access adequate education (Constitution of South Africa 1996). Therefore, 423 schools are available in South Africa for learners with special needs (Capri et al., 2018), yet the number of learners attending special schools – either public or private continues to increase (Capri et al., 2018). Moreover, adolescents with intellectual disabilities are seldom provided with the necessary tools to access education; in some instances, they only receive financial assistance, which is insufficient to cover all their needs (Plotner and Marshall, 2016).

The Incheon Declaration (2015) referred to the importance of inclusive education for all, including people with disabilities. The same declaration instructed facilities should be adapted for children with disabilities. Still, in most countries, including South Africa (the setting of the study), policies do not exist that have mandated such changes, and adolescents with intellectual disabilities find themselves out of mainstream education (Capri et al., 2018). Such exclusion is a major challenge with poor outcomes for these individuals (Plotner and Marshall 2016). Therefore, more research and evidence-based practice are required to assist school-going learners with intellectual disabilities in achieving independent living through education. Based on this premise, the researchers embarked on this study to explore teachers’ perceptions of enablers to enhance adolescents with intellectual disabilities’ learning.

Problem statement

Individuals with intellectual disabilities face stigma, even in school settings (Pelleboer et al., 2021). Moreover, many policies meant to assist school-going adolescents with intellectual disabilities have not shown any improvements in promoting this group’s learning (Malapela et al., 2020). Teachers at some schools where adolescents with intellectual disabilities are enrolled also face many challenges, including environmental difficulties, and the complex psychological and social functioning of school-going adolescents with intellectual disabilities (Chou et al., 2011). In addition, budgets assigned to education are limited (Du Plessis, 2011; McKenzie, 2021), resulting in schools for learners with special educational needs being disadvantaged (McKenzie, 2021).

Most special schools accommodate adolescents with mild-to-moderate intellectual disabilities, yet inclusive education advocates for all learners with intellectual disabilities to be accommodated (Mangope, 2018). The limited budget ultimately negatively affects the enablers that could enhance adolescents with intellectual disabilities’ learning (McKenzie, 2021). Some negative impacts include overcrowding in schools, employing teachers with no relevant qualifications, and providing minimal learning in a non-conducive environment (Malapela et al., 2020).

Globally, 3–4% of the general population with intellectual disabilities contributes to the Global Burden of Disease (WHO, 2002). Everyone has a unique learning style and experiences the environment in which learning takes place differently (Wiess et al., 2018). For adolescents with intellectual disabilities, the social stigma associated with their different learning styles means their environments are often ignored by those meant to protect them – the school community (Pelleboer et al., 2021).

Theoretical framework

The study was situated in the social model of disability, first proposed by Oliver in the 1980s. This model is universal and applicable to Africa and South Africa, in particular. The social model’s focus is on the exclusion of certain individuals who find themselves stigmatised for some reason; in this case, having an intellectual disability. The exclusion is typically orchestrated by others in society. In South Africa, various forms of social exclusion have been experienced since the apartheid era, and it is thus relevant to explain intellectual disability within the social exclusion model (Du Plessis, 2011). According to the model, the environments in which they live (Barnes et al., 2010) frame people with any form of disability. The model also emphasises that society disables people with different learning abilities; hence, it is the society that needs to adapt to the environment and make it conducive to students’ learning.

As members of society, teachers may experience social impositions caused by labels and disabilities for the adolescents and the environment in which they learn. The model of disability emphasises an environment that adapts to adolescents with intellectual disabilities’ learning so that they can benefit fully from their education (Cologon, 2016). With this understanding, the researchers explored teachers’ (as part of society) perceptions of enablers to enhance school-going adolescents with intellectual disabilities’ learning.

Methods

Purpose and research questions

The purpose of this study was to explore teachers’ perceptions of enablers to enhance learning for school-based adolescents with intellectual disabilities. The researchers intended to answer the following question:

  • • What do teachers perceive as enablers for enhancing learning among school-based adolescents with intellectual disabilities?

Research design

A narrative qualitative design was undertaken for this study (Green and Sergeeva, 2019). This design was relevant as it enabled the participants to share their perspectives freely. Narratives are of value as they use anecdotal stories, which individuals use to make sense of their lived experiences (Green and Sergeeva, 2019). Eighteen teachers aged between 22 and 60 years, consisting of 14 women and four men from special schools drawn by purposive sampling, participated in the study.

Ethical consideration

This article was part of a larger study investigating adolescents with intellectual disabilities transitioning into adulthood. Participants were well informed about the study, voluntary participation was emphasised, and participants were told that they could withdraw from the study at any time during data collection. Participants’ confidentiality was respected, and pseudonyms were used to protect their privacy.

Sample and recruitment

Public and private special schools for adolescents with intellectual disabilities were chosen in the Tshwane North District in the Gauteng Province of South Africa; the schools were selected based on their proximity to the researchers. There are three special schools in Tshwane North District, but only two schools were included in the sample as the third school was under renovation at the time of data collection and teachers were unavailable. The first author secured the appointment with various principals from private and public special schools to conduct briefing sessions about their intentions with the study. During the briefing session with principals, information leaflets and consent forms were given for distribution to the teachers. A drop-box was made available at reception; teachers interested in the study could post their completed consent form in the box. The first author collected the consent forms and made appointments with the relevant participants at their convenience. A total of 21 teachers agreed to participate in the study. Ultimately, 18 participants were recruited into the study because three were unavailable at the appointed interview time. The teachers were between 22 and 60 years old and only eight teachers had training in special education. The teachers’ experience varied from 3 to 10 years working with school-going adolescents with intellectual disabilities.

Data collection

Audio-recorded unstructured interviews were conducted to obtain teachers’ perceptions of the phenomenon under study. Interviews were only recorded after participants gave their consent. In accordance with the narrative methodological approach, interviews were designed around an open-ended question that served as a narrative call: “I would like to know your perceptions of assisting school-based learners with intellectual disabilities”.

The participants were told there was no formal format, and they could share their perceptions from any angle. The participants were not interrupted and were allowed to express themselves freely. Follow-up questions were also structured around a conversational format, allowing participants to follow the same line of thinking. Follow-up questions included: (1) “Tell me what your views are on what would help the learners achieve their maximum capacity”; (2) “I would like to know if what you have here is useful in promoting learners’ acquisition of knowledge and skills”; (3) “What are your thoughts on enablers?”; and (4) “Please share any other additions that you believe you have not covered”.

Data collection started only after the participants consented to be interviewed and verified that the consent form was signed. The interviews lasted between 45–60 minutes. All the participants spoke English, but two were interviewed in the local language (Sepedi), which is also the first author’s first language and is understood by the second author. The transcripts were then translated into English and back into Sepedi and back into English and reviewed by both authors to determine any discrepancies. Interviews were conducted in a private office allocated for this purpose on the school premises. The private office added value to participants’ right to privacy and created a conducive environment with few distractions. A notice was placed on the office door to avoid disturbance.

Data analysis

A qualitative thematic approach to narrative analysis was used to analyse the data (Green and Sergeeva, 2019). Thematic narrative analysis was suited for the study because it is concerned with the content rather than the structure and the function (Riesman, 2008). In accordance with narrative analysis (Riesman, 2008; Green & Sergeeva, 2019), transcripts from all 18 participants were read several times by both authors, discussed, and validated. The authors adopted a descriptive coding approach, where participants’ words were used as codes. Three waves of coding were done. Codes were refined into narrative themes and categorised into narrative types.

Findings

Four themes emerged from the narrative analysis related to therapeutic settings, parental support, teaching strategies, and community participation.

Therapeutic settings

All 18 participants stated that a therapeutic setting where individuals are given unique attention is necessary to enhance learning. They argued that a therapeutic environment should be stimulating to encourage learning. Participants further shared that a stimulating environment could be realised through the adequate provision of resources and services. This claim was best captured in the following narrative quotes:

“We do not have any visual nor auditory supports to facilitate students’ acquisition of difficult concepts, the governments should support these special schools with enough funding. Teachers must be trained on special education and teaching for learners with intellectual disability should be individualized…” Thuto, with 3 years of experience

“The schools need to have drawing boards where we can write inspirational messages to motivate learning and concentration. Specialized teachers are needed not just any teacher so that the learners can be supported and encouraged. Knowing what to do would benefit the learners and would be a good enabler.” Thabo, with 8 years of experience

“The classrooms are too small. Learners need space, this is too crowded and some classrooms do not have adequate ventilation….” Thuo, with 6 years of experience

Parental support

Seven participants emphasised that the most enabling enhancer of learning was parental support. Narrative quotes in support of the statement follow:

“Parental involvement in the early years is specifically important and plays the largest role in the child’s life. A good parent-teacher relationship and sharing of information with one another can benefit the learner. Also, teachers need to guide and give parents skills on how to help their children at home…” Kabo, with 4 years of experience

“When parents play their role in the teaching and learning of their children out of school, the child finds it easier to comprehend at school…” Thabo, with 8 years of experience

Teaching strategies

Eight participants had no training to teach in special schools, and they all emphasised the need for appropriate teaching strategies. Participants shared:

“Teaching pupils with ID need many teaching devices to be made available such as simplified videos to enhance their learning…” Grace with 5 years of experience

“Knowing the child and his disability better shall lead to quality teaching and learning. It is important that special schools provide a solid foundation, and redo (repeat) the content of Grades 1, 2 and 3. Acknowledgements for positive behaviour. Attendance of specialized workshops like welding, woodwork, and brickworks to acquire skills. Department of Education to develop a specific curriculum for Learners with Special Education Needs....” Mary, with 10 years of experience

“Teaching using occupational strategies is a strong enabler for enhancing their learning. I have begun leadership groups called Soul Buddys, Girls Education Movement (GEM) and Boys Educational Movement (BEM), where both groups are involved in projects on how to improve their school lives, and education. This teaches them to develop values and leadership skills. Involvement in different activities such as sports, drama, and music culture just to keep them busy and away from bad behaviours…” Rachel, with 8 years of experience

“I believe that health care workers especially nurses should visit the classroom more often and teach our students about personal hygiene and the use of ablution facilities. We as teachers cannot be expected to know everything…” Kabo, with 5 years of experience

Community involvement

A community is defined as a group of people who socially interact because of shared goals and interests (Nies and McEwen, 2019). In the context of this paper, the community includes structures and people within the same area of residence as individuals with intellectual disabilities. Such structures include churches, recreation facilities, mainstream schools, and shopping areas. Participants felt that teachers work alone at school, parents work alone at home, and other members of the community, such as the church, are not working together. They felt that for individuals with intellectual disabilities to be optimally helped, there should be a strong alliance with communities, and all stakeholders should become engaged. Participants suggested that communities be educated on intellectual disability so they can be of assistance to parents, teachers, and individuals with intellectual disabilities. This was made clearer by the following quotes:

“Communities should be given more knowledge and skills. Communities should offer support and not mock individuals with intellectual disabilities which they can only do if they have appropriate information about them…” Thato, with 3 years of experience

“School health nurses should also be advocates for adolescents with intellectual disability and their availability should be seen both in schools and in the communities…” Thuo, with 3 years of experience

“Availability of recreation facilities in the communities which are open to individuals with ID will be a strong enabler for enhancing learning for individuals with ID and help community acceptance…” Mary, with 10 years of experience

Discussion

The main finding of this study related to therapeutic settings as an enabler to enhance adolescents with IDs’ learning. A conducive environment plays a pivotal role in enhancing learning for this student population. Existing literature emphasises that a conducive environment needs to consider physical conditions that promote human comfort (Ahmad et al., 2015), offering clear guidance on how a therapeutic setting should look. A group of environmental factors such as colours, variation, brightness, imagination-stimulating activities, comfort, freedom, dynamism, flexibility, and environmental warmth may influence the minds of adolescents with intellectual disabilities (Khakzand and Aghabozorgi, 2015). However, environmental factors will be dependent on the availability of resources and equipment. Capri et al. (2018) emphasise the education system in South Africa should be more accommodating to all who live in the country, including those with intellectual disabilities. However, inclusive education will only be achieved if teaching strategies are aligned with individuals’ learning needs and styles. Previous studies also indicated a need for the sound professional training for teachers to build their self-confidence and cognitive flexibility to develop innovative localised teaching approaches (Engelbrecht and Muthukrishna, 2019).

Participants also mentioned parental support. Parents’ active involvement in their children’s daily activities provides more opportunities for them to become aware of their children’s strengths and weaknesses. This enables parents to offer appropriate guidance and envisage what the future holds for their children (Malapela et al., 2020).

Participants further reported teaching strategies are an enabler to learning. Understanding students’ disability profiles assists in terms of knowing which strategies to be adopted. An appropriate teaching strategy maximises opportunities for learning and growth (Mart, 2018). Still, teaching strategies should be adapted according to individual learners’ learning styles, which can only be achieved if teachers know the profile of their learners. Literature proposes that some teaching strategies should encourage diversification and individuation teaching, and that learning materials should be adapted to each individual learner (Wiess et al., 2018). Participants were of the view that involving communities in the teaching/learning process of learners with intellectual disabilities would serve as an enabler for both learning and job placements. Therefore, communities should create job opportunities for learners with intellectual disabilities. However, according to Domain and Butterworth (2013, cited in Plotner and Marshall, 2016), only 19% of learners with special educational needs have been awarded job opportunities. Multidisciplinary approaches, including family involvement and community support, are also necessary to enhance learners with IDs’ transition into adulthood (Malapela et al., 2020). Research (Bartnikowska et al., 2017) reported that interactions with peers to stimulate physical, cognitive, social, and psychological skills are strong enablers for learning among adolescents with intellectual disabilities. However, Biggs and Carter (2016) noted that learners with intellectual disabilities rarely interact with friends or play with other children.

Strengths and limitations

This study drew strength from the participants and the settings where this study was conducted. Private and public special schools in the Tshwane North district of Gauteng Province were included in the study, and valuable information was obtained. However, the sample included only two special schools, which could have been extended to other districts to maximise transferability and dependability. The other limitation of the study was that only special schools were sampled, and teachers from mainstream schools were not included. Therefore, the findings of this study could not be generalised.

Implications for policy

Policy level support is needed to appropriately equip schools and augment therapeutic settings for students since this was found to be a major enabler for student learning. Participants in the study were also of the view that engagements with parents and communities would enhance post-school transitions and outcomes.

Conclusion

The study’s purpose was to explore teachers’ perceptions of the enablers for school-going adolescents with intellectual disabilities. The findings support what is already known in the literature, namely that a therapeutic setting is an important element in the promotion of learning for individuals with intellectual disabilities (Du Plessis, 2011; Mangope, 2018). The emphasis on learners with IDs’ inclusion in mainstream education was also emphasised under therapeutic settings, and communities should be involved as an enabler for individuals with intellectual disabilities’ learning. The study recommends that a more inclusive study, involving a larger setting, teachers from mainstream schools and policymakers, be carried out to supplement this study and other research on intellectual disability.

Acknowledgements

We would like to express our gratitude to all the teachers who took the time to share with us their perceptions on enablers to enhance school-based adolescents with intellectual disabilities.

Footnotes

Author contributions: The first author was responsible for the conceptualisation and design of the study, data collection, analysis of the data and drafting of the manuscript. The second author reviewed and conceptualized the drafted manuscript and made critical revisions to the manuscript in terms of important intellectual content. The second author was also responsible for aligning the manuscript with the journal requirements. Both authors were responsible for the manuscript’s finalisation and submission.

The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding: The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Ethical statement: The study was approved by the relevant review boards and informed consent was obtained from participants prior to the study. It followed the declaration of Helsinki.

Ethical consideration: This article was part of a larger study investigating adolescents with intellectual disabilities transitioning into adulthood. Before the study was conducted, permission was sought from the University of South Africa (Ref: HSHDC/540/2016), Gauteng Department of Health (Ref: GP 2017RP23-259), Gauteng Department of Education (Ref: No 2017/13) and the private school (Ref: EMIS NO: GN 700 400 449).

ORCID iD

Rakgadi Grace Malapela https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6691-9720

References

  1. Ahmad S, Shaaria MF, Hashim R, et al. (2015) Conducive attributes of physical learning environment at preschool level for slow learners. Procedia-Social & Behavioural Sciences 201: 101–120.3389/fpsyg.2021. [Google Scholar]
  2. Barnes C, Mercer G, Shakespeare T. (2010) Exploring Disability: A sociological introduction. Sociology 35(1): 219–258. [Google Scholar]
  3. Bartnikowska U, Cwirynkalo K, Borowska-Beszta B. (2017) A pattern of transition to adulthood indicated in plans for the future of males with intellectual disabilities: secondary qualitative data analysis. International Journal of Psycho-Educational Sciences 6(1): 51–66. [Google Scholar]
  4. Bathgate KF, Sherriff JL, Leonard H, et al. (2017) Feasibility of assessing diet with a mobile food record for adolescents and young adults with Down Syndrome. Nutrients 9(273): 1–11. [Google Scholar]
  5. Biggs E, Carter E. (2016) Quality of life for transition-age youth with Autism or Intellectual Disability. Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders 46(1): 190–204. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  6. Capri C, Abrahams L, McKenzie J, et al. (2018) Intellectual disability rights and inclusive citizenship in South Africa: what can a scoping review tell us. African Journal of Disability 1–17: 1. [DOI] [PMC free article] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  7. Chou YC, Chiao C, Fu LY. (2011) Health status, social support and quality of life among family carers of adults with profound intellectual and multiple disabilities (PIMD) in Taiwan. Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability 36(1): 73–79. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  8. Cologon K. (2016) What is disability? It depends whose shoes you are wearing: parent understandings of the concept of disability. Disability Studies Quarterly 36. 10.18061/dsq.v36i1.4448 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  9. Cvitjetic M, Kaljaca S, Glumbic N. (2021) The role of personal and environmental factors in autonomous behaviour of people with intellectual disability. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education. 10.10801314/da/171I7.10 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  10. Du Plessis M. (2011) The social model of disability and impact of South African education white paper 6: Access to the basic education system for persons with severe or profound impairments. 10.4314/ldd.v17i1.10 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  11. Engelbrecht P, Muthukrishna N. (2019) Inclusive education as a localised project in complex contexts: A South African case study. Southern African Review of Education 25(1): 107–124. [Google Scholar]
  12. Green SD, Sergeeva N. (2019) Value creation in projects: Towards a narrative perspective. International Journal of Project Management 37(5): 636–651. [Google Scholar]
  13. Jeevanan J. (2016) Self-confidence among dyscalculic elementary school students of Shimla District. International Journal of Advanced Research, Ideas & Innovations in Technology 2(6): 1–4. [Google Scholar]
  14. Lee J, Shute V. (2010) Personal and social contextual factors in K-12 academic performance: An integrative perspective on student learning. Educational Psychologist 43(3): 185–202. [Google Scholar]
  15. Khakzand M, Aghabozorgi K. (2015) Achievement to environmental components of educational spaces for Iranian trainable children with intellectual disability. Procedia-Social and Behavioural Sciences 201: 9–18. [Google Scholar]
  16. Kleintjes S, McKenzie J, Abrahams T, Adnams C. (2020) Improving the health of children and adults with intellectual disability in South Africa: Legislative, policy and service delivery. South African Review 2020(1):19–34. [Google Scholar]
  17. Malapela RG, Thupayagale-Tshweneagae G, Mashalla Y. (2020) Transition of adolescents with intellectual disability from schools for learners with special educational needs: Parents views for the preparedness. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities 33(6):1440–1447. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  18. Mangope B. (2018) Inclusive practices for learner with intellectual disability in primary schools in Botswana. Mosenodi journal 20: 320–345. [Google Scholar]
  19. Mart CT. (2018) Literature in language teaching: A recipe to maximize learning. L1-Educational Studies in Language & Literature 18: 1–25. DOI: 10.17239/LIESLL-2018.18.01.09. [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  20. McKenzie J. (2021) Intellectual disability in inclusive education in South Africa: Curriculum Change. Journal of Policy & Practice in Intellectual Disabilities 18(1): 53–57. [Google Scholar]
  21. Nies MA, McEwen M. (2019) Community/Public Health Nursing Online for Nies and McEwen: Community/Public Health Nursing, 7th edition. Elsevier. ISBN: 9780323528771. [Google Scholar]
  22. Pelleboer G, van Weeghel J, Embregts P. (2021) Public stigmatisation of people with intellectual disability: A mixed method population survey into stereotypes and their relationship with familiarity and discrimination. Disability and Rehabilitation 43(4): 489–497. [DOI] [PubMed] [Google Scholar]
  23. Plotner AJ, Marshall KJ. (2016) Supporting Postsecondary Education Programs for Individuals with an Intellectual Disability: Role of the Vocational Rehabilitation Counsellor. Rehabilitation Counselling Bulletin 59(4): 195–202. [Google Scholar]
  24. Possi KM, Milinga JR. (2017) Learner diversity in inclusive classrooms: The interplay of language, instruction, gender and disability. Malaysian Online Journey of Educational Sciences 5(3): 28–45. [Google Scholar]
  25. Riesman CK. (2008) Narrative methods for Human Sciences. Los Angeles: Sage. [Google Scholar]
  26. South Africa (1996) Constitution of South Africa, Act No.108 of 1996. Pretoria: Government Printers. [Google Scholar]
  27. The Incheon Declaration (2015) World Education Forum 2015 adopts Incheon Declaration on education for all by 2030. International Institute for sustainable development/SDG Knowledge Hub. [Google Scholar]
  28. Wiess S, Markowetz R, Kiel E. (2018) How to teach students with moderate and severe intellectual disability in inclusive and special education setting: teachers’ perspectives on skills, knowledge and attitude. 10.1177/1474904118780171 [DOI] [Google Scholar]
  29. World Health Organization (2002) Injury is a leading cause of the global burden of disease. Department of injuries and violence prevention, non-communicable diseases, and mental health cluster. Geneva: WHO. ISBN 9241562323. Available at: http://www5.who.int/violence_injury_prevention [Google Scholar]
  30. World Health Organization, World Bank (2011) World report on disability data report. WHO: Geneva. https://apps.who.int/publications/i/item/9789241564182 [Google Scholar]

Articles from Journal of Intellectual Disabilities are provided here courtesy of SAGE Publications

RESOURCES