Temperamental and Neuropsychological Predictors for Major League Pro-Baseball Success

Abstract

Background:

Securing a professional baseball career is a formidable task, and only a unique few can overcome the obstacles necessary to become a Major League player in the Korea Baseball Organization (KBO). When achieving a spot in a KBO Major League team, a player’s technical aspect may be influenced by their initial neuropsychological status.

Hypothesis:

Personality and neurocognitive functions influence long-term pro-baseball league success.

Study Design:

Cohort observational study.

Level of Evidence:

Level 3.

Methods:

From the start of each player’s career, we monitored the status and course of 153 baseball players in the KBO from 2009 to 2019 who agreed to participate in this study. The Korean versions of the Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) and the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory-Y (STAI-KY) analyzed traits and estimated state and trait anxiety levels, respectively. The Trail Making Test (TMT) (parts A and B) assessed attention shifting, and, in the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST), perseverative errors determined cognitive flexibility. Hierarchical logistic regression models were used to predict player status variables, with TCI and neurocognitive function variables as covariates.

Results:

High novelty-seeking scores, low state anxiety, and short TMT A results reliably predict KBO Major League participation in a player’s third year. Similarly, low state anxiety scores and high harm avoidance, reward dependence, and self-transcendence scores accurately predict KBO Major League participation in a player’s fifth year. Lastly, short TMT A results, low perseverative error scores, and high novelty-seeking, harm avoidance, reward dependence, and self-transcendence efficiently predict KBO Major League participation in a player’s seventh year.

Conclusion:

Draft ranking, personality, and neurocognitive function are associated with pro-baseball league achievement. In particular, personality and neuropsychological functions are associated with long-term success.

Clinical Relevance:

Clinically, sound personality and neuropsychological functions determine KBO Major League success.

Baseball is the most popular sport in Korea and ranks fourth in the United States. Approximately 480,000 male athletes participated in high school baseball in the United States between 2018 and 2019. ⁴⁵ However, only about 60,000 of these players continued playing baseball in college, and roughly 35,000 students attended National Collegiate Athlete Association (NCAA) schools. ⁴⁴ Less than 0.5% of high school and 10% of NCAA players are drafted into Major League Baseball (MLB). ³² Likewise, 1006 players (760 high school and 240 college graduates) participated in Korea’s 2022 draft, but only 100 joined a professional team. ¹ Attaining a professional baseball career is challenging, and only a unique few can overcome the formidable obstacles to becoming a Major League player in the Korea Baseball Organization (KBO).^10,30,31

Personality and Neurocognitive Functions are Critical For Professional Sports Success

Personality, including temperament and character, is vital for professional sports success and determining adaptability. In particular, temperament and character were associated with the biopsychosocial personality model of individual development.^2,15,40 Several studies have revealed that personality predicates long-term success in professional sports.^3,19,40 An athlete’s personality is integral to determining athletic performance and goals, but also continuously influences motivation.^33,36 Sports require numerous simultaneous judgments, fast and efficient decision-making, and quick information extraction during dynamic situations.^38,49 Skilled athletes capable of quickly adapting can allocate their attention faster and more effectively than less skilled athletes. ²¹ These players also employ visual scanning techniques, speed, and anticipation to improve their performance, ⁵² furthering the gaps between athlete levels. Thus, neurocognitive functions are paramount for professional sports success.

Sport-Cultivated Personality and Neurocognitive Functions During Adolescence

Before joining a professional sports team, players are introduced to sports during adolescence. ⁴⁵ Adolescence is a critical developmental stage with the most significant physical activity and personality changes.^26,43 Through sports, adolescent athletes develop skills such as coping with pressure and expectations, time and stress management, personality development, decision-making, leadership, communication, teamwork, building self-confidence, and efficacy. ²⁴ Furthermore, exercise often shapes personality, whether independently or in a team. ⁴

Alongside personality changes, cognitive development occurs between ages 13 and 18, the second plasticity and frontal lobe growth phase during adolescence.^8,34 Middle school athletes (aged 14-16 years) express more creativity and evaluate their strengths and weaknesses through self-reflection. They compare personal best records, decide what needs improvement, design an action plan, and create new approaches.^48,56 During late adolescence (aged 16-18 years), athletes set more realistic goals for their sports abilities. When a player’s cognitive sports ability develops fully, they can comprehend and remember complex strategies. ⁹ Thus, players must continue to focus on their internal abilities even after becoming a professional baseball player.

Hypothesis

This study theorized that the neuropsychological status at the start of each player’s career predicts their physical and technical abilities when achieving a KBO Major League team position.

Methods

Participants

Among 229 rookie players who graduated from high school in 3 professional baseball teams from 2009 to 2012, 153 participated in this study. We monitored each participant’s status and career in the KBO from 2009 to 2019. The Chung Ang University Institutional Review Board approved this study’s protocol. All participating players provided their written and informed consent.

Study Design

During the rookie season, all players completed demographic, temperament, character, and psychological scale questionnaires, including mood and anxiety assessments. In addition, they were requested to complete an attention and working memory neurocognitive function test. We conducted neuropsychological tests only when the rookie players began their careers. Using official KBO records, we recorded each player’s status at baseline, third, fifth, and seventh years.

Measures

The Temperament and Character Inventory (TCI) is a personality assessment developed by Cloninger ¹⁵ that provides a comprehensive biopsychosocial personality model as it develops in each person. The Korean version of the TCI was used for trait analysis, ⁵³ consisting of 240 true-or-false questions to evaluate 4 temperaments and 3 character dimensions. The 4 temperaments included novelty seeking (exploratory excitability, impulsiveness, extravagance, and disorderliness), harm avoidance (anticipatory worry, fear of uncertainty, shyness, fatigability, and asthenia), persistence (eagerness of effort, work hardened, ambitious, and perfectionist), and reward dependence (sentimentality, attachment, and dependence). The 3 character dimensions were self-directedness (responsibility, purposefulness, resourcefulness, self-acceptance, and congruent second nature), cooperativeness (social acceptance, empathy, helpfulness, compassion, and integrated conscience), and self-transcendence (self-forgetfulness, transpersonal identification, and spiritual acceptance). Cronbach’s α and test-retest reliability of TCI in the Korean population have been reported as 0.77 and 0.81, respectively. ⁵³

The Beck Depressive Inventory (BDI) is a depression diagnostic and measurement with 21 questions, ⁶ each assigned a score based on participant response. Scores are summed, resulting in a total score ranging from 0 to 63. The diagnostic criteria are as follows: normal, 0 to 13; mild depression, 14 to 19; moderate depression, 20 to 28; and severe depression 29 to 63. The Korean version of the BDI has been validated for the Korean population. ⁵⁵

The Korean version of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory-Y (STAI-KY) measures state anxiety by assessing temporary anxiety, nervousness, and physiological changes, such as heart palpitations and breathing fluctuations. The STAI-KY assessed both state and trait anxiety levels in participants with 40 questions related to anxiety. These questions were categorized into 2 factors, with 20 items each for state and trait anxiety. ¹⁴ Cronbach’s α of STAI-KY was 0.91 for state and 0.82 for trait anxieties.

The Trail Making Test (TMT) evaluates attention shifts from high cognitive impairment in minor stress and trauma sensitivity, ⁴² with motor speed and agility notably contributing to TMT success. ⁵⁰ TMT includes 2 parts. In Part A, subjects draw lines on a page, consecutively connecting 25 numbers as quickly as possible. In Part B, subjects must draw lines that consecutively alternate between numbers and letters. ⁵⁴ We measured the time it took for athletes to complete these tests. TMT A/B test and retest reliability in Korean adults were 0.62 and 0.53, respectively (P < 0.05). ²⁵

The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) measures cognitive flexibility.^5,7,29 Patients with prefrontal cortex injuries exhibited performance deficits on the WCST and other rule-switching tasks. ²³ “Perseverative” errors were the most closely associated with cognitive flexibility in the WCST, in which subjects did not follow “correct” or “wrong” feedback and continued using the previous rule. ⁷ Scores were recorded along several dimensions, including the category number achieved (WCST C) and the measured category with the most common perseverative errors (WCST PE). ³⁵ WCST C and PE test and retest reliability in Korean adults were 0.584 and 0.453, respectively (P < 0.05). ⁴¹

Statistical Analysis

The Durbin-Watson test confirmed variable collinearity. Hierarchical logistic regression models were used to predict participation in the KBO Major League (yes/no) at (1) 3 years, (2) 5 years, and (3) several years, with 3 distinct levels of independent variables. The 3 distinct hierarchical independence levels were as follows: the first level represents demographic factors (independent variables: student age, sports year, position, and draft ranking); the second level encompasses temperament and characteristics; and the third level encompasses neuropsychological factors (independent variables: BDI, state and trait anxieties, TMT A-B, and perseverative errors).

We defined KBO Major Leaguers as persons registered as KBO players. In addition, those who participated in games for >145 days annually and have at least 8 years of playing experience met the criteria for a KBO free-agent contract. All statistical analyses were conducted using IBM SPSS 24, and statistical significance was set at P < 0.05.

Results

Major Leaguer Demographic Characteristics and Trajectories Over 7 Years

All participants’ mean age and sports years were 18.31 ± 0.65 and 9.83 ± 1.96 years, respectively. Player positions included pitcher (n = 76, 49.7%), catcher (n = 17, 11.1%), infield (n = 35, 22.9%), and outfield (n = 25, 16.3%) (Table 1). The mean draft ranking for all players was 53.35 ± 33.38. Among the 153 rookie players, 60 (39.2%) were full-time KBO Major Leaguers over the 7 years. Of the 51 high-draft ranking players (upper 33.3% draft ranking), only 9 (5.9%) had experience as a full-time KBO Major Leaguer during the rookie season. In the third year, 11 high-draft and 5 nonhigh-draft players had experience in the KBO Major League. In the fifth year, 10 high-draft and 19 nonhigh-draft players had KBO Major League experience. In the seventh year, 6 nonhigh-draft players had KBO Major League experience (Figure 1).

Table 1.

Demographic, temperament and characteristics, and neuropsychological factors

Demographic characteristics
Age, years		18.31 ± 0.65
Sports participation, years		9.83 ± 1.96
Position	Pitcher	76 (49.7%)
	Catcher	17 (11.1%)
	Infield	35 (22.9%)
	Outfield	25 (16.3%)
Draft ranking		53.35 ± 33.38
Temperament and Character Inventory
Novelty-seeking		17.71 ± 5.49
Harm avoidance		13.61 ± 6.09
Reward dependence		16.81 ± 4.72
Persistence		5.91 ± 1.60
Self-directedness		24.15 ± 9.74
Cooperativeness		29.16 ± 6.85
Self-transcendence		15.81 ± 6.59
Neuropsychological factors
BDI		6.04 ± 4.57
State anxiety		35.39 ± 11.12
Trait anxiety		39.01 ± 6.38
TMT A, seconds		26.30 ± 11.10
TMT B, seconds		56.58 ± 27.36
Perseverative error		14.09 ± 7.52

BDI, Beck Depressive Inventory; TMT, Trail Making Test.

Figure 1.

Major leaguer trajectories over 7 years.

Hierarchical Logistic Regression Analysis for Major Leaguers at Baseline, Third, Fifth, and Seventh Years

Models 1 (demographic factors), 2 (demographic factors + temperament and characteristics), and 3 (demographic factors + temperament and characteristics + neuropsychological factors) were associated significantly with participation in the KBO Major League in the third year. Considering Nagelkerke’s R², Models 1-3 could explain 29.0%, 59.7%, and 84.3% of dependent variables (ongoing participation in the third year of the KBO Major League) concerning a third-year KBO Major Leaguer, respectively. High draft rankings, high novelty-seeking scores, low state anxiety, and short TMT A times were significant third-year KBO Major Leaguer predictors (Table 2).

Table 2.

Hierarchical logistic regression analysis for third-year Major Leaguers ^a

	Model 1				Model 2				Model 3
	B	Wald	P	OR	B	Wald	P	OR	B	Wald	P	OR
Demographic factors
Age	0.001	0.000	>0.99	1.001	0.068	0.113	0.74	1.070	0.329	0.960	0.33	1.390
Sports years	0.102	0.601	0.44	1.107	0.293	2.331	0.13	1.341	0.269	0.879	0.35	1.309
Positions	0.054	0.057	0.81	1.055	−0.077	0.061	0.81	0.926	0.111	0.029	0.86	1.117
Draft ranking	−0.046	17.554	0.00	0.955 b	−0.072	19.163	0.00	0.930 b	−0.076	6.230	0.01	0.926 b
TCI
Novelty-seeking					0.350	14.788	0.00	1.419 b	0.332	3.839	0.05	1.394 b
Harm avoidance					0.118	3.213	0.07	1.126	0.080	0.457	0.50	1.083
Reward dependence					0.157	5.718	0.02	1.170 b	0.054	0.189	0.66	1.056
Persistence					0.181	0.585	0.44	1.199	0.170	0.107	0.74	1.185
Self-directedness					0.035	0.844	0.36	1.035	0.110	2.064	0.15	1.116
Cooperativeness					−0.020	0.152	0.70	0.980	−0.070	0.658	0.42	0.933
Self-transcendence					−0.023	0.174	0.68	0.978	0.094	0.629	0.43	1.098
Neuropsychological factors
BDI									−0.039	0.166	0.68	0.961
State anxiety									−0.148	4.922	0.03	0.863 b
Trait anxiety									−0.065	0.308	0.58	0.937
TMT A									−0.374	6.901	0.01	0.688 b
TMT B									−0.064	2.266	0.13	0.938
Perseverative error									0.003	0.002	0.97	1.003
Model statistics
-2 Log likelihood	101.771				65.785				29.130
Model χ2	χ2 = 27.752, P < 0.01				χ2 = 63.737, P < 0.01				χ2 = 100.393, P < 0.01
Step χ2	χ2 = 27.752, P < 0.01				χ2 = 35.986, P < 0.01				χ2 = 36.65, P < 0.01
Nagelkerke’s R2	0.290				0.597				0.843
Class accuracy	83.0				91.5				97.4

BDI, Beck Depressive Inventory; OR, odds ratio; TCI, Temperament and Character Inventory; TMT, Trail Making Test.

^aB is the coefficient for the constant in the null model, Wald is the χ² test.

bp < 0.05.

Models 1 (demographic factors), 2 (demographic factors + temperament and characteristics), and 3 (demographic factors + temperament and characteristics + neuropsychological factors) were associated significantly with participation in the KBO Major League in the fifth year. Furthermore, considering Nagelkerke’s R², Models 1-3 could explain 23.7%, 59.9%, and 67.3% of the dependent variables (ongoing participation in the fifth year of the KBO Major League) concerning players in their fifth year, respectively (Table 3). Low state anxiety scores and high draft ranking, harm avoidance, reward dependence, and self-transcendence scores were notable fifth-year KBO Major Leaguer predictors (Table 3).

Table 3.

Hierarchical logistic regression analysis for fifth-year Major Leaguers ^a

	Model 1				Model 2				Model 3
	B	Wald	P	OR	B	Wald	P	OR	B	Wald	P	OR
Demographic factors
Age	0.004	0.001	0.97	1.004	0.030	0.038	0.85	1.031	0.118	0.426	0.51	1.125
Sports years	−0.061	0.336	0.56	0.941	0.015	0.012	0.91	1.015	0.002	0.000	0.99	1.002
Positions	0.031	0.035	0.85	1.031	0.077	0.122	0.73	1.080	0.206	0.613	0.43	1.229
Draft ranking	−0.029	17.909	0.00	0.971 b	−0.054	23.879	0.00	0.947 b	−0.062	23.003	0.00	0.939 b
TCI
Novelty-seeking					0.094	4.069	0.04	1.098 b	0.056	1.087	0.30	1.058
Harm avoidance					0.133	6.849	0.01	1.142 b	0.171	7.375	0.01	1.187 b
Reward dependence					0.352	20.988	0.00	1.422 b	0.359	17.398	0.00	1.432 b
Persistence					0.142	0.545	0.46	1.152	0.130	0.346	0.56	1.139
Self-directedness					0.023	0.732	0.39	1.023	0.062	2.778	0.10	1.064
Cooperativeness					−0.007	0.024	0.88	0.993	−0.006	0.012	0.91	0.994
Self-transcendence					0.088	4.350	0.03	1.092 b	0.110	5.199	0.02	1.116 b
Neuropsychological factors
BDI									0.002	0.002	0.96	1.002
State anxiety									−0.073	4.392	0.04	0.929 b
Trait anxiety									−0.042	0.784	0.38	0.959
TMT A									−0.027	0.956	0.33	0.974
TMT B									0.009	0.739	0.39	1.009
Perseverative error									−0.072	3.760	0.05	0.930
Model statistics
-2 Log likelihood	167.342				109.329				94.230
Model χ2	χ2 = 28.789, P < 0.01				χ2 = 86.801, P < 0.01				χ2 = 101.900, P < 0.01
Step χ2	χ2 = 28.789, P < 0.01				χ2 = 58.013, P < 0.01				χ2 = 15.099, P = 0.02
Nagelkerke’s R2	0.237				0.599				0.673
Class accuracy	71.2				85.0				90.8

BDI, Beck Depressive Inventory; OR, odds ratio; TCI, Temperament and Character Inventory; TMT, Trail Making Test.

^aB is the coefficient for the constant in the null model, Wald is the χ² test.

bp < 0.05.

Lastly, Models 1 (demographic factors), 2 (demographic factors + temperament and characteristics), and 3 (demographic factors + temperament and characteristics + neuropsychological factors) were associated significantly with participation in the KBO Major League in the seventh year. Similar to fifth-year predictions, when considering Nagelkerke’s R², Models 1-3 likely explain 13.7%, 51.6%, and 62.8% of the dependent variables (ongoing participation in the seventh year of the KBO Major League) during the seventh year, respectively (Table 4). Low perseverative error scores and high draft ranking, novelty-seeking, harm avoidance, reward dependence, self-transcendence, and short TMT A scores were substantial seventh-year KBO Major Leaguer predictors (Table 4).

Table 4.

Hierarchical logistic regression analysis for seventh-year Major Leaguers ^a

	Model 1				Model 2				Model 3
	B	Wald	P	OR	B	Wald	P	OR	B	Wald	P	OR
Demographic factors
Age	−0.013	0.012	0.91	0.987	0.046	0.097	0.76	1.047	0.101	0.350	0.55	1.107
Sports years	0.026	0.068	0.79	1.026	0.062	0.260	0.61	1.064	0.018	0.016	0.90	1.019
Positions	0.116	0.500	0.48	1.123	0.153	0.494	0.48	1.166	0.140	0.293	0.59	1.150
Draft ranking	−0.023	11.589	<0.01	0.977 b	−0.038	15.727	0.00	0.963 b	−0.037	10.844	<0.01	0.964 b
TCI
Novelty-seeking					0.142	8.240	<0.01	1.153 b	0.116	4.242	0.04	1.123 b
Harm avoidance					0.128	6.765	<0.01	1.137 b	0.135	5.717	0.02	1.144 b
Reward dependence					0.222	13.407	0.00	1.248 b	0.212	10.013	<0.01	1.236 b
Persistence					0.153	0.638	0.43	1.165	0.114	0.260	0.61	1.121
Self-directedness					0.048	2.880	0.09	1.050	0.070	3.127	0.08	1.072
Cooperativeness					−0.046	1.269	0.26	0.955	−0.056	1.523	0.22	0.945
Self-transcendence					0.106	7.165	<0.01	1.112 b	0.130	7.776	<0.01	1.138 b
Neuropsychological factors
BDI									0.055	1.935	0.16	1.056
State anxiety									−0.013	0.153	0.70	0.987
Trait anxiety									−0.051	1.105	0.29	0.950
TMT A									−0.115	4.907	0.03	0.892 b
TMT B									−0.006	0.192	0.66	0.994
Perseverative error									−0.090	5.502	0.02	0.914 b
Model statistics
-2 Log likelihood	166.378				113.855				94.022
Model χ2	χ2 = 15.367, P < 0.01				χ2 = 67.890, P < 0.01				χ2 = 87.723, P < 0.01
Step χ2	χ2 = 15.367, P < 0.01				χ2 = 52.523, P < 0.01				χ2 = 19.833, P < 0.01
Nagelkerke’s R2	0.137				0.516				0.628
Class accuracy	75.8				86.3				86.9

BDI, Beck Depressive Inventory; OR, odds ratio; TCI, Temperament and Character Inventory; TMT, Trail Making Test.

^aB is the coefficient for the constant in the null model, Wald is the χ² test.

bp < 0.05.

Discussion

Third-Year Major Leaguers

A total of 24 players (16 new to the KBO Major League) were full-time KBO Major Leaguers during their third year. In the hierarchical logistic regression analysis, the characteristic that demonstrated the strongest association was novelty-seeking (Wald, 3.839; odds ratio [OR], 1.394; P = 0.05). In addition, low state anxiety (Wald, 4.922; OR, 0.863; P = 0.03), and short TMT A scores (Wald, 6.901; OR, 0.688; P < 0.01) possibly predicted KBO Major League participation in a player’s third year. Novelty-seeking is characterized by intense excitement or interest in response to novel stimuli or cues for potential rewards and is often associated with extroverted personalities.^16,17 Furthermore, persons with high novelty-seeking traits can regulate a broad range of goal-directed behaviors and motivations, including positive emotions, energy, and focus. ³⁹ Thus, these findings emphasize the importance of novelty-seeking temperaments in the early stages of a player’s career.

Being able to cope with anxiety at the beginning of an athlete’s career directly affects their performance; higher anxiety levels negatively impact performance.^13,18,37 The short TMT results correlated with shorter cue-target interval times and flexible attentional shifting.^12,21,46 The ability to shift attention in unexpected situations is crucial for KBO Major League players in their third year. Cognitive flexibility, including shift attention, enhances environmental adaptability and problem-solving in new conditions. ¹¹ As such, we propose that adaptability and problem-solving are integral characteristics for KBO Major League players in their third year.

Fifth-Year Major Leaguers

During their fifth year, 50 players (29 new to the KBO Major League) were full-time KBO Major Leaguers. According to the statistical results, reward dependence (Wald, 17.398; OR, 1.432; P < 0.01) was the characteristic with the highest relevance. In addition, low state anxiety scores (Wald, 4.39; OR, 0.929; P = 0.04), high harm avoidance (Wald, 7.375; OR, 1.187; P < 0.01), and self-transcendence (Wald, 5.199; OR, 1.116; P = 0.02) scores were associated with KBO Major League participation in a player’s fifth year. Persons with high harm avoidance scores are often cautious, fearful, inhibited, and apprehensive. ²⁷ Diligently investing effort into training can naturally prevent athletes from discontinuing their training and resorting to passive avoidance, thereby influencing their performance as they approach their fifth year. ³⁹ Conversely, a high reward dependence score is linked to perseverance, diligence, and continuing behavior in anticipation of rewards. ¹⁷ This aspect motivates athletes to continue training by considering future rewards rather than immediate results. Self-transcendence is an inherent human characteristic, and its development is affiliated with self-actualization and living a meaningful life. ²²

Seventh-Year Major Leaguers

A total of 42 players (6 new to the KBO Major League) were full-time KBO Major Leaguers. From our hierarchical logistic regression analysis, reward dependence demonstrated the strongest association (Wald, 10.013; OR, 1.236; P < 0.01). In addition, short TMT A (Wald, 4.907; OR, 0.892; P = 0.03), low perseverative error (Wald, 5.502; OR, 0.914; P = 0.02), and high novelty-seeking (Wald, 4.242; OR, 1.123; P = 0.04), harm avoidance (Wald, 5.717; OR, 1.143; P = 0.02), and self-transcendence (Wald, 7.776; OR, 1.138; P < 0.01) scores possibly predicted KBO Major League participation in a player’s seventh year. A player’s draft ranking impact diminishes during their seventh year, and practice and training are even more crucial. High novelty-seeking scores continue to help players learn and improve by providing ongoing motivation through positive emotions, energy, and focus. ⁵¹ A previous study revealed that pitching ability is heavily influenced by learning and experience, and it takes a long time to reach its peak. MLB players reach their peak performance relative to age, experience, and performance around 30 years. ²⁰ However, a professional player’s stay in the KBO averages 4 to 6 years after their debut, and approximately 50% of rookie players retire before the age of 28 years. ⁴⁷

High harm avoidance, reward dependence, and self-transcendence scores all contribute to a player’s ability to maintain consistent effort.^22,28,39 Short TMT times and low perseverative errors remain essential for players with high attention levels and quick reaction times. One study determined that the regular player maintained better cognitive flexibility throughout the game than the reserve player, as evidenced by lower perseverative errors and short TMT times. ²⁸ Therefore, these traits are paramount to maintaining team position when players must compete for regular playing time 7 years after their rookie season.

Limitations

There were several limitations in the current study. First, we did not include any investment data on neuropsychological functions during the third, fifth, and seventh years. In addition, success was defined by attaining a spot on the KBO Major League roster. Second, we did not consider factors like injuries, personal issues, or team conflicts over 7 years as reasons that may lead athletes to quit. Future studies should incorporate additional subjects, data details, injury and trauma histories, and other success details, including batting, home run, and earned run averages.

Conclusion

Draft ranking, personality, and neurocognitive functions are associated with long-term pro-baseball league success. As such, developing personality and neurocognitive functions during adolescence may improve chances for lengthier participation.