Changes in Sports Participation, Specialization, and Burnout From 7th to 12th Grade: Final Results From a 6-Year Longitudinal Study

Abstract

Background:

Previous studies show alarming rates of burnout and dropout from sports participation and physical activity in the youth population. Early sports specialization may increase the risk of injury, burnout, and eventual dropout from sports.

Hypothesis:

Sports participation will decrease, specialization will increase, and burnout will increase from junior high to high school.

Study Design:

Prospective longitudinal study.

Level of Evidence:

Level 2b.

Methods:

The graduating class of 2023 was surveyed longitudinally in the fall of each school year from 7th to 12th grade (n = 35-77 from middle to high school based on new enrollment participants and attrition). Survey questions asked about sports participation, specialization, and burnout. Responses were analyzed by grade level using mixed effects linear and logistic regression accounting for repeated measures.

Results:

The number of days per week in which students engaged in at least 60 minutes of strenuous exercise progressively decreased from 7th through 12th grade from 4.0 to 2.3 days per week (P < 0.01). The percentage of students participating in sports also decreased from 7th to 12th grade from 82% to 39% (P < 0.01). More students stopped participating in a sport (38% vs 22% to 29%, P = 0.04), quit a sport to focus on a single sport (60% vs 46% to 49%, P = 0.01), or reported that 1 sport was most important to them (71% vs 54% to 67%, P = 0.06) in 9th grade. Burnout in sports did not differ significantly by grade level (19% to 23%, P > 0.99). In contrast, burnout in school was significantly more common in high school (54% to 69%) compared with middle school (36%, P < 0.01). Burnout in school was higher in female students compared with male students (68% vs 38%, P < 0.01).

Conclusion:

Organized sports participation and general physical activity decreased from middle to high school, with the entry into high school at 9th grade being a time at which a significant number of students dropped other sports to specialize in a single sport or stopped participating. Burnout in sports did not appear to increase with age; however, there was an increase in school-related burnout as students transitioned from middle to high school.

Clinical Relevance:

Our results highlight the need for continued research into sports participation, specialization, and burnout in adolescents. In addition, health professionals and the community (parents, coaches, teachers) supporting youth athletes may consider positive interventions during the periods of transition from middle to high school to include facilitating different tracks of sports participation (including a developmental or recreational model of play) to reduce dropout from sport and supportive measures to lessen burnout from sports and from school.

Participation in youth sports provides athletes with an opportunity to develop leadership qualities, peer relationships, and self-esteem while simultaneously supporting their physical and mental health.^4,7 While aspects of sports participation promote resilience and overall well-being, some of the pressures associated with performance may have the opposite effect. Emphasis on youth sport participation has increased in recent years, leading to greater demands from athletes in a field of growing competition. ⁸ In the United States, an estimated 60 million youth athletes participate in organized sports each year, including nearly 8 million who participate in high school-level athletic programs. ¹³ Recent studies suggest that approximately half the athletes in scholastic sports programs concurrently participate in club teams to train year-round in a chosen sport. ¹³ These trends demonstrate the drastic changes to youth sport participation that have been observed over the past 10 years, as the primary focus has shifted from fun and fitness to one of short-term competitive success.^15,19 This shift has forced parents and athletes to take part in exclusive teams, camps, and showcases, which are perceived to be vital in ensuring a successful athletic career.^15,19 Consequently, the youth sport experience has become one that perpetuates early sport specialization, high-intensity and year-round training, as well as persistent competition in organized teams. ¹⁹ Unfortunately, participation in organized, competitive level teams, and training camps often requires substantial time and financial commitments that some families cannot meet. As a result, participation in organized sports, particularly with regard to elite-level sports, has evolved to become mostly exclusive to those with access to the most resources, creating disparities in play and outcomes.^3,23 With the shift in focus on priorities in youth sport, one may question what effects that transition has on the landscape of youth athletics.

Sport specialization is defined by intensive year-round training in a single sport, while intentionally excluding involvement in additional sports. ⁷ Specifically, those who train 8 months or more out of the year in a single sport, choose a single main sport, and/or quit all other sports to focus on 1 sport are considered to be “specialized” in their respective sport. ¹³ Specialization can be further categorized into degrees of specialization: highly specialized, moderately specialized, and low specialization. Highly specialized athletes meet all specialization criteria (>8 months a year of training in a single sport, chose a single main sport, and quit all other sports to focus on 1). Moderately specialized athletes meet 2 out of 3 of the listed criteria and low specialization athletes only meet 0 to 1 of the criteria. ²¹ Decisions to specialize early are often influenced by desires to give young athletes a competitive edge, a pursuit of becoming an elite-level athlete, and/or to receive a future scholarship. ⁹ As sports participation grows, an increasing number of athletes are electing to specialize in a single individual sport. ⁹ In a study involving >1000 athletes between the ages of 7 and 18 years, Padaki et al ²³ found that at least 60% of the youth athletes were moderately specialized in a sport, and most were specialized before the age of 12 years. In fact, this study found the mean ± SD age of specialization to be 8.1 ± 3.6 years. ²³ The opportunity to participate in high-level, year-round sports at an early age is, however, not equally available to all. Research has shown that the concept of democratization of education in the United States, that education should be accessible by all, stands in stark contrast to the reality that access and affordability to high education opportunities for youth remains inequitable, especially those from minoritized communities or those at the lower rungs of the socioeconomic ladder. ²² Similar disparities affect youth sports that have become increasingly expensive and inaccessible to families of lower socioeconomic status, and those disparities have become only more apparent after the COVID-19 pandemic. ²⁴

Although parents and coaches may encourage specialization for various perceived advantages, previous data have suggested that the risks may outweigh the perceived benefits.^9,19,32 There is increased consensus and evidence demonstrating increased potential negative risks on youth’s physical and psychosocial well-being from adapting a specialization approach to sport participation.^{5,16,20,23,25} Moreover, lack of exposure to diverse sports activities during youth developmental periods may increase the risk of injury, impede motor skill development, and lead to overtraining syndrome or burnout. ²⁶ Research of top athletes has shown that early specialization is not a prerequisite in elite-level athletic performance and may put an athlete at risk for overuse injury and burnout at the detriment of long-term success. ¹⁹ Those who specialize in a single sport have been found to be at greater risk of injury as compared with those who engage in multiple sports.^7,9,13,27 Therefore, the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), American Medical Society for Sports Medicine (AMSSM), and American Orthopedic Society for Sports Medicine (AOSSM) recommend delaying specialization until late adolescence to reduce risks of possible adverse effects. ¹³ Athletes who specialize in 1 sport have also been shown to have higher physical and emotional exhaustion than those who engage in multiple sports throughout the year. ⁷

The term burnout, is defined as “exhaustion of physical or emotional strength or motivation usually as a result of prolonged stress or frustration.” ⁶ The first study looking at sport-related burnout in athletes was conducted in 1986 by Smith ³⁰ and was based on a theory of social exchange, suggesting that burnout could arise as a consequence of stress based on 4 variables: situational factors, cognitive appraisal, physiological responses, and behavioral responses. This model described athlete burnout as an emotional, physical, and psychological withdrawal from an activity that one previously found joyful but has turned into an aversive source of stress. ³⁰ A prominent researcher, Raedeke, defined sport-related burnout through 3 core dimensions: physical and emotional exhaustion, reduced level of accomplishment, and sport devaluation. ²⁵ Burnout in sport is believed to be the result of training and nontraining factors, leading to mental and physical exhaustion. ¹⁰ Risk factors for burnout include excessive training volumes and time commitment, demanding performance expectations, frequent and intense competition, as well as personal characteristics, such as perfectionism or low self-esteem. ⁵ Athletes experiencing burnout may feel fatigue from the demands of their sport, an inability to meet the demands, a reduced sense of accomplishment, and an eventual loss of interest or desire to withdraw.^7,17 However, studies have shown that following through on the decision to leave or withdraw from sport due to burnout, while providing temporary relief to that adolescent athlete, may also instead negatively affect that athlete’s overall emotional and mental state. ¹

Sports specialization has become an important topic in recent years, especially as the competitive nature of youth sports have evolved, with some athletes training upward of 15 to 20+ hours a week. ²⁷ The combination of hours dedicated to school and sport has the potential to induce burnout in adolescent athletes as they attempt to keep up with schoolwork, extracurricular activities, and training. While participation in sports is often associated with positive effects on academic performance, this is highly dependent on the demands of the activity and the student’s time-management skills. Students may be more susceptible to burnout and become overwhelmed as they attempt to navigate a busier schedule and encounter imbalances between demands and available physical or emotional resources. This study aimed to examine changes in physical activity, specialization, and burnout (and what potential factors may contribute to levels of burnout) in students followed longitudinally from 7th through 12th grade. We hypothesized that sports participation will decrease, specialization will increase, and burnout will increase from junior high to high school.

Methods

Sample and Recruitment

Before recruitment and data collection, Institutional Review Board approval was obtained to perform this study. Participants were recruited from a single, college preparatory middle/high school in a large metropolitan area with help from the school’s Community Health Officer. This study was conducted with this particular school due to a preexisting partnership with their Institute of Scholastic Sports Science and Medicine program and the school’s availability to participate. A public school was sought out to participate as well, but logistical challenges with the school district prevented their participation. Students from the graduating class of 2023 were invited to participate at the beginning of each school year, over a 6-year period (2017-2022). Students were provided with an overview of the study’s objectives and were given the research coordinator’s email if interested in participating. Once interest was confirmed, assent was obtained from students (who were all <18 years of age) and consent was obtained from parents via video or phone call with the student and parent. After the initial consent call, the student would provide the study team with their email address where survey links were to be sent.

Data Collection/Survey

The same class was surveyed longitudinally in the Fall of each school year from 7th to 12th grade. Surveys were distributed through email containing a Research Electronic Data Capture (REDCap; Vanderbilt University) survey queue link. Students were sent email reminders to complete the surveys for 2 weeks after initial distribution. Survey responses were confidential and accessible only by the study team. The only identifying information obtained was the student’s email; however, each participant’s responses were coded for analysis.

Background Survey

The Background Survey was comprised of 24 questions that asked students about sports participation, specialization, and feelings of burnout toward sports and/or school. Specifically, the survey was composed of 5 demographic questions, 6 questions about sports participation, 6 questions about school/schoolwork, 5 questions assessing risk of burnout (specifically, questions regarding hours of sleep per night, dietary habits, and hours of free time as potential contributing factors to burnout), and 2 questions that directly asked students to rate their levels of burnout toward school and sports. A few questions were added to the survey over the 6-year period as noted in the tables.

Data Analysis

Responses were analyzed by grade level using mixed effects linear and logistic regression with a random effect for participant and a fixed effect for grade to account for the repeated measures. Linear regression was used for continuous outcome measures, and logistic regression was used for binary outcomes. The sample reflected a convenience sample derived from the recruited class (graduating class of 2023) at the participating school. All members of this class were invited to join the study in 7th grade or in their year of entry to the school if they matriculated after 7th grade. A public school was also approached to participate in the study but could not be included due to logistical issues as described above. The relationship between sleep, sports participation, and burnout was examined using similar models with these variables added as fixed effects. Results were deemed significant if P < 0.05. All statistical analyses were performed using STATA (Version 14.2 StataCorp LP).

Results

A total of 126 students were enrolled and 43 withdrew from the study over the course of the 6-year study, with a retention rate of 66% (Table 1). Survey participation varied year to year with highest participation of N = 77 in 7th grade, and lowest at N = 36 in 10th grade (Table 2). Of the 126 students enrolled, 101 participants provided data on ethnicity and 103 participants reported their sex at birth throughout the course of the study. Over half the students identified as White (59%), 20% identified as Asian, 13% reported being of mixed race, 4% identified as Latino, and 3% identified as Black. There were almost equal numbers of female (55; 53%) and male (48; 47%) students.

Table 1.

Students enrolled and withdrawn by grade

	Grade
	7th	8th	9th	10th	11th	12th
Newly enrolled	97	1	23	0	5	0
Withdrew	2	7	22	6	6	0
Total	95	89	90	84	83	83

Table 2.

Results from background survey by grade

	Grade
	7th	8th	9th	10th	11th	12th	P
N a	77	56	63	37	64	38
Days per week with 60+ min strenuous exercise	4.0 (2.0)	4.2 (1.8)	3.6 (2.4)	2.7 (2.0)	3.3 (2.3)	2.3 (2.6)	<0.01
Participate in sports	63/77 (82%)	45/56 (80%)	44/63 (70%)	22/37 (59%)	46/64 (72%)	15/38 (39%)	<0.01
Stopped participating in a sport	17/59 (29%)	15/54 (28%)	24/63 (38%)	8/37 (22%)	14/63 (22%)	10/35 (29%)	0.04 d
Quit sports to focus on one b	—	26/53 (49%)	35/58 (60%)	17/37 (46%)	28/58 (48%)	15/32 (47%)	0.01 d
One sport more important b	—	35/52 (67%)	42/59 (71%)	19/35 (54%)	34/56 (61%)	19/31 (61%)	0.06 d
75% of training in single sport b	—	35/54 (65%)	41/58 (71%)	25/37 (68%)	44/59 (75%)	19/33 (58%)	0.33
Private trainer/coach c	—	—	—	13/36 (36%)	23/62 (37%)	8/36 (22%)	0.51
Sports hours/week	5.4 (3.4)	7.5 (5.1)	7.7 (5.2)	6.1 (4.8)	9.2 (5.5)	11.9 (7.0)	<0.01
Burnout sport b	—	9/45 (20%)	8/43 (19%)	5/22 (23%)	9/46 (20%)	3/15 (20%)	>0.99
Burnout school b	—	20/56 (36%)	34/63 (54%)	24/37 (65%)	43/62 (69%)	22/36 (64%)	<0.01
Homework hours/school night	2.4 (1.4)	2.5 (1.2)	2.9 (1.0)	3.5 (1.2)	3.8 (1.9)	3.6 (1.1)	<0.01
Sleep hours, weeknight c	—	—	—	7.4 (1.3)	6.5 (1.0)	6.6 (1.3)	<0.01
Sleep hours, weekend c	—	—	—	9.0 (1.9)	8.6 (1.1)	8.4 (1.6)	0.14

Continuous variables are presented as mean (SD). Categorical values are presented as n (%). P values indicate significance of the overall model including grade as a factor variable.

^aThose athletes who completed the background questionnaire.

^bQuestion was added in 8th grade

^cQuestion was added in 10th grade.

^dNinth grade vs all other grades.

The number of days per week in which students engaged in at least 60 minutes of strenuous exercise progressively decreased from 7th through 12th grade from 4.0 to 2.3 days per week (P < 0.01, Table 2). The percentage of students participating in sports also decreased from 7th to 12th grade from 82% to 39% (P < 0.01). More students stopped participating in a sport (38% vs 22% to 29%, P = 0.04), quit a sport to focus on a single sport (60% vs 46% to 49%, P = 0.01), or reported that 1 sport was most important to them (71% vs 54% to 67%, P = 0.06) in 9th grade compared with all other grades, although the percentage of athletes spending at least 75% of their time in a single sport did not differ significantly across grade level (58% to 75%, P = 0.33). Use of a private trainer/coach also did not differ by grade (22% to 37%, P = 0.51), but was asked about only in grades 10 to 12. For those playing sports, average hours per week spent in sports increased from 7th through 12th grade from 5.4 to 11.9 hours per week (P < 0.01).

Burnout in sports did not differ significantly by grade level (19% to 23%, P > 0.99). In contrast, burnout in school was significantly more common in high school (54% to 69%) compared with 8th grade (36%, P < 0.01) as homework load increased from an average of 2.4 hours to 3.6 per school night (P < 0.01). Sleep was a factor that was assessed as a potential contributor to burnout. Self-reported sleep hours, which were collected in grades 10 to 12, decreased significantly from 7.4 hours per weekday night in 10th grade to 6.5 to 6.6 hours/night in 11th and 12th grade (P < 0.01) although there was no significant difference on weekends (9.0 vs 8.4-8.6 hours/night, P = 0.14). However, no significant relationship was found between sleep hours and burnout in school or sports (P > 0.10). Athletes and nonathletes reported similar rates of burnout in school after accounting for grade level (P = 0.29). Among athletes, few felt burnt out in sports only, but a large percentage were burnt out in school or both school and sports (Table 3). Burnout in school was higher in females compared with males (68% vs 38%, P < 0.01), but the difference between sexes in burnout in sports was not statistically significant (female vs male, 23% vs 15%, P = 0.27). Although not found to be statistically significant, it was notable that females were found to be 1.5 times more likely to report burnout than males. Burnout levels related to sport or school did not differ by race or ethnicity.

Table 3.

Burnout in sports and school among athletes by grade level

	Grade
	8th	9th	10th	11th	12th
N a	45	43	22	46	14
No burnout	30 (67%)	17 (40%)	7 (32%)	14 (30%)	8 (57%)
Sports only	0	3 (7%)	0	1 (2%)	0
School only	6 (13%)	18 (42%)	10 (45%)	23 (50%)	4 (29%)
Sports and school	9 (20%)	5 (12%)	5 (23%)	8 (17%)	2 (14%)

^aThose athletes who completed the background questionnaire.

Discussion

Numerous studies have shown patterns of decreasing activity as young people transition from childhood to adolescence, until reaching a plateau in adulthood.^3,12,14 The results of our study support the current literature, as participants reported a reduction in exercise from their freshman to senior year. The greatest levels of exercise were reported in 7th and 8th grades, with ≥4 days per week, and the lowest levels of exercise were reported in 12th grade, with an average of 2.3 days of activity per week. By contrast, those who participated in sports reported an increase in hours dedicated to their sport in their last 2 years of high school; nonetheless, hours devoted to sport were within recommended ranges throughout all years based on guidelines set forth by academic sports health professional organizations. Although overall exercise levels tend to trend downward as age increases, participation in youth sports offers a baseline structure of repeated activity that may be a strong predictor of continued physical activity levels later in life. ¹⁴ For this reason, caregivers should encourage their child to participate in sports at a healthy level, whether it be at a recreational or competitive level, to establish healthy habits that likely continue into adulthood. However, special attention needs to be given regarding the involvement and intensity in which youth are participating in those sports, so as to maintain a love of activity, reduce risk of injury and burnout, and develop the person as a whole.^5,13,31 More opportunities should be made available to educate families, coaches, and sports commissioners on the importance of lifelong exercise while fostering support for healthy sports competition during later years.

The results of this study also emphasize the prevalence of sports specialization in young athletes. Contrary to what may be common belief, specialized, high-volume training in certain sports may not be the most effective method to developing elite-level skills. With the exception of a few individual sports, early specialization may actually increase risk of injury and burnout. ⁷ Despite warnings against early specialization, many parents, coaches, and athletes have maintained the belief that consistent, rigorous training in a single sport will lead to greater success. ¹⁸ The results of our study found that it was more common for students to stop participating in a sport, to report that 1 sport was more important, or quit 1 sport to focus on another in 9th grade. An age threshold for early specialization has not been defined; however, orthopaedic specialists suggest waiting until middle-late adolescence (14-18 years of age) to specialize in a sport.^2,13 Moreover, a report by Martin et al ¹⁸ found that those who participated in 3 sports at key ages in early-mid adolescence (10-13 years of age) were more likely to play on national elite teams than those who specialized in 1 sport. ² Facilitating different tracks of sports participation (including a developmental or recreational model of play) may prevent sport dropout and facilitate continued physical activity participation during these key transition periods of growth.

Specialization has been associated with burnout in past literature; however, the results have been inconsistent.^7,9,19 Our study found no correlation between sport participation and feelings of sport-related burnout. Likewise, hours of reported sleep did not have a significant relationship to feelings of burnout, despite being a documented risk factor. ⁵ We did find evidence suggesting an increasing prevalence of burnout related to school among older adolescents, supporting previous research. ²⁶ School-related burnout is proposed to manifest as symptoms of emotional exhaustion, reduced interest in school, and individual feelings of inadequacy as a student. ²⁷ Previous proposed theories relate burnout to a divergence between the needs of a person and the particular demands imposed by the context in which that person finds themself, leading to a depletion of energy without a perceived gain of appropriate returns. ²⁸ In response, stress and a sense of feeling overwhelmed can emerge, thus leading to burnout. ¹¹ In our study, burnout from school was most common in high school in 10th, 11th, and 12th grades as the homework hours increased, with female students being affected at a higher rate than male students. This supports previous research revealing a dramatic increase in level of school burnout among high school girls over the past several years. ²⁹ These findings are important when considering the trajectories of students as they progress through school, particularly high school when screenings for burnout may be needed. In addition, one should consider the notion that nuanced approaches to support students psychosocially may be needed to prevent these negative outcomes. Continuous education in the form of webinars, seminars, interactive conferences, and workshops for educators, coaches, athletes, and parents can help provide opportunities to learn about mental health needs for youth. In addition, advocacy around school-based mental health practitioners can help make resources more accessible for youth. While sport-related burnout for only athletes in the study varied in different years (Table 3), burnout from sport for all participants (Table 2) was consistent throughout the course of the study. It was found to affect at least 1 in 5 participants, which is notable, and a risk factor to be mindful of and screen for, as sport-related burnout can be a contributing factor for dropout from sports and, more importantly, from overall physical activity and exercise, which can affect general health and school performance.

This study has several strengths and limitations. One strength of our study is the longitudinal study design, following the same cohort over the course of 6 years. This study may contribute to a greater understanding of how student attitudes toward school and sport change over time.

However, this study is also limited by a small sample size made up of students from a single private, college preparatory high school. This convenience sample may be underpowered to detect some differences between groups or changes with grade level. In addition, students attending this high school may feel greater pressure to do well in school and in sport due to the nature of their institution and environment. College preparatory high schools may have more challenging classes that require more time and effort from students, potentially putting them at higher risk of academic burnout. It is also worth noting that these students have privileged access to many resources that public school students may not have, which may influence overall sports participation and academic success.

Another limitation to consider is the number of teams available to adolescents as they age. This is especially true for scholastic competitive sports teams, which have a limited number of positions available, and selection for participation can often time be based on skill. Participation in sports outside of this, such as in club or travel leagues, will also be based on skill/experience and the likelihood of winning, and will also often come with additional expenses that some families cannot afford. Consequently, adolescents may choose to drop out of certain sports for a variety of reasons that may not be fully captured in this study. In addition, the students’ understanding of “stopped participating in sport” could have been confused with “quit sports to focus on one,” which could have affected the data. However, the research coordinators made themselves available to answer any questions or possible confusions regarding the surveys during the course of the study. Finally, this study was conducted before, during, and after the COVID-19 pandemic. The quarantine restricted students to virtual classes in the 10th grade, during which most sports and activities were limited, if not completely interrupted.

Conclusion

Organized sports participation and exercise activity decreased throughout middle and high school, with the entry into high school at 9th grade being a time at which a significant number of students dropped other sports to specialize in a single sport or stopped participating altogether. Although sports specialization has become a popular training strategy to achieve athletic success, athletes may benefit from waiting until late adolescence to drop other sports.^1,27 Burnout in sports did not appear to increase with age; however, there was an increase in school-related burnout as students transitioned from middle to high school. Additional research is needed to develop a better understanding of the nuances that influence sports participation, specialization, and burnout in the adolescent population.