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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2025 Mar 1.
Published in final edited form as: J Fam Psychol. 2023 Sep 21;38(2):345–354. doi: 10.1037/fam0001154

Hispanic Adolescents’ Internalizing Symptoms and Positive Family Functioning: A Bidirectional Examination of Associations over Time

Emily G Simpson 1, David Córdova 2, Courtney R Lincoln 3, Christine McCauley Ohannessian 4
PMCID: PMC10922048  NIHMSID: NIHMS1933243  PMID: 37732956

Abstract

Open communication with parents, defined as perceived ease of adolescent-parent disclosure, and family support, are components of positive family functioning linked with fewer adolescent internalizing symptoms. However, relatively little is known about bidirectional pathways over time. Even less is known about bidirectional pathways for Hispanic adolescents or about the role of adolescent and parent gender. Therefore, this study examined bidirectional pathways between positive family functioning and adolescent internalizing symptoms over time in a sample of Hispanic middle school adolescents (N=340; 51% female, Mage = 13.27, SD = .77 years), who completed surveys in the fall of 2016 (Time 1) and the spring of 2017 (Time 2; N=284; 52% female). Results indicated that positive family functioning, including open communication with mothers and fathers, predicted fewer depressive symptoms for girls, but not for boys. Open communication with fathers predicted fewer anxiety symptoms for girls and boys. Girls’ depressive symptoms, but not boys’, predicted decreases in open communication with fathers. Boys’ depressive symptoms predicted less family support. Unexpectedly, boys’ anxiety symptoms predicted increased family support. These findings highlight gendered pathways linking family functioning and internalizing symptoms in Hispanic adolescents over time, including the relative importance of open communication with fathers. Gendered findings emphasize the utility of family-based prevention and early intervention programs targeting internalizing symptoms, especially for Hispanic girls.

Keywords: adolescence, family functioning, communication, anxiety, depression

Adolescent internalizing symptoms, including anxiety and depressive symptoms, remain significant public health concerns in the United States, especially among Hispanic adolescents (Isasi et al., 2016; Kann, et al., 2017). Positive family functioning, defined as open parent-adolescent communication and family support, has been associated with decreased internalizing symptoms among adolescents, and this association may be especially pronounced among Hispanic adolescents (Lorenzo-Blanco et al., 2016; Perreira et al., 2019). Open parent-adolescent communication, including perceived ease of adolescent-parent disclosure, is an important indicator of parent-child relationship quality. Family support refers to the perceived instrumental and emotional support provided by the family. Despite established linkages between adolescent internalizing symptoms and positive family functioning, relatively little is known about the function of adolescent gender, particularly in Hispanic adolescents (Córdova et al., 2014). Moreover, our understanding of how reports of adolescent communication with mother and adolescent communication with father differentially affect internalizing symptoms among adolescents, including Hispanic adolescents, is limited (Brouillard et al., 2018). Understanding adolescent and parent gender differences is critical for informing prevention and early intervention for families, including Hispanic families, as gender and gender role expectations may impact the link between positive family functioning and adolescent internalizing symptoms (Falicov, 2010; Lorenzo-Blanco et al., 2012). Additionally, the vast majority of research has been cross-sectional or has only examined one direction of effect. Contemporary developmental theory, such as Relational Developmental Systems, highlights that adolescent development is the joint product of mutually influential processes within families (Smetana & Rote, 2019). Family functioning shapes adolescent internalizing symptoms and adolescent internalizing symptoms affect family functioning. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate the bidirectional link between positive family functioning and internalizing symptoms among Hispanic adolescents and how associations vary by adolescent and parent gender. Developing a fuller understanding in this area will advance family theory with respect to the distinct context and needs of families, including Hispanic families living in the United States, and provide family-based interventions with essential information about how protective mechanisms may operate.

Internalizing symptoms among Hispanic Adolescents

Adolescence is characterized by vulnerability to internalizing symptoms, and Hispanic adolescents are especially at risk (Chavira et al., 2018; McLaughlin & King, 2015). Nationally, 34% of Hispanic 9th grade adolescents report internalizing symptoms in the last year, compared to 28% of non-Hispanic White and 28% of non-Hispanic Black 9th grade adolescents (Kann, et al., 2017). A myriad of social, economic, and political factors have been postulated to explain this elevated risk. For example, Hispanic adolescents may face challenges, including discrimination and acculturative stress, which exacerbate the risk for internalizing symptoms (Torres et al., 2012). Stark gender disparities also persist, with Hispanic 9th grade girls more likely to report internalizing symptoms than Hispanic 9th grade boys (49% vs. 19%, respectively; Kann et al., 2017). Understanding factors that prevent and reduce internalizing symptoms among Hispanic adolescents is critical. It is projected that by 2060, 32% of the United States population 17 years of age or younger will identify as Hispanic (Vespa et al., 2018). Importantly, Hispanics in the United States come from many different backgrounds and immigration histories. Some individuals may more strongly identify with other terms, such as Latino/a/x/e, but the label Hispanic tends to be slightly preferred among those with origins or heritage from Cuba, Mexico, Puerto Rico, South or Central American, or other Spanish speaking places (Ramos et al., 2023). For readability purposes, the term Hispanic is used, referring to individuals of Cuban, Mexican, Puerto Rican, South or Central American, or other Spanish origins, irrespective of race (U.S. Census Bureau, 2010).

Positive Family Functioning and Internalizing symptoms among Hispanic Adolescents

Positive family functioning has been theorized to prevent and reduce internalizing symptoms among adolescents generally and for Hispanic adolescents specifically (Abaied & Rudolph, 2014; Lorenzo-Blanco et al., 2017). Open adolescent communication with parents, such as the perceived ease of disclosure and sense of mutual understanding, as well as family support, are useful positive family functioning indicators with respect to internalizing symptoms. Higher levels of open parent-adolescent communication and cohesion have been associated with fewer internalizing symptoms among Hispanic adolescents (Lorenzo-Blanco et al., 2012; Schwartz et al., 2016). Adolescent and parent-reported family support also are associated with fewer internalizing symptoms among Hispanic adolescents (Kapke et al., 2017). Evidence supports the importance of positive family functioning for internalizing symptoms among Hispanic adolescents, but important areas to advance family theory and practice in meaningful ways remain.

First, relatively few scholars have employed longitudinal designs to examine associations between dyadic and family-level indicators of positive family functioning and changes in internalizing symptoms among Hispanic adolescents. Of note, Lorenzo-Blanco and colleagues (2022) constructed a latent variable for family functioning, using adolescent-parent and family-level indicators of functioning. In this study of hope among recent Latinx immigrant adolescents and parents, results indicated that higher family functioning predicted a less steep growth in hope, which in turn predicted increased adolescent depressive symptoms (Lorenzo-Blanco et al., 2022). Although such latent variables present statistical strengths over manifest variables, they also preclude examination of gendered dyadic relationships (adolescent-mother and adolescent-father) and of the relative contributions of dyadic relationships (adolescent-mother and adolescent-father) alongside family-level functioning.

Second, research focused on examining adolescent gender and the association between positive family functioning and internalizing symptoms is limited (Córdova et al., 2014). In the broader examination of gender, family functioning, and adjustment among Hispanic families, linkages between family functioning and adjustment may depend on gender (Updegraff et al., 2021). For example, parental warmth in Puerto Rican families was found to have a greater protective effect against childhood major depressive disorder and ADHD for girls than boys (Santesteban-Echarri et al., 2017). In another study of Hispanic families, family conflict more strongly predicted boys’ depressive symptoms than girls (Lorenzo-Blanco et al., 2012). Similarly, high family conflict has been linked to Hispanic boys’ PTSD symptoms but not girls’, whereas family cohesion was more strongly linked to Hispanic girls’ PTSD symptoms than boys’ symptoms (Suarez-Morales et al., 2017). Another study of Mexican immigrant families found that the link between adolescent-parent relationships and adolescent psychological adjustment was stronger for girls than boys (Updegraff et al., 2009). Cultures with traditionally patriarchal gender roles emphasize masculine assertiveness, dominance, and independence and feminine warmth, caring, and submissiveness (Galanti, 2003). Theory articulates that adherence to traditional gender roles, such as those commonly observed in Hispanic families, may sensitize adolescents to gender role congruent components of family functioning, such as the role of family warmth and harmony for girls and the role of family conflict for boys (Lopez et al., 2013). It may be that Hispanic girls are particularly sensitive to positive family functioning, compared with boys, making adolescent gender an important moderator to examine in the associations between family functioning and adolescent internalizing symptoms (García et al., 2014).

The early adolescent period is important to investigate, as it is characterized by rapidly increasing internalizing symptoms and declines in positive family functioning (Hollenstein & Lougheed, 2013; Kann, et al., 2017). These transitional years are characterized by disruptions within the family, as youth are striving for greater autonomy and independence. Finally, it remains unclear how the preventative effects of family functioning may be shaped by earlier internalizing symptoms among Hispanic adolescents, as few studies have examined bidirectional pathways (Manongdo et al., 2011).

Bidirectional Pathways Linking Positive Family Functioning and Internalizing Symptoms among Hispanic Adolescents

Family Systems Theory emphasizes two concepts concerning the relational development of adolescents within families (Cox & Paley, 2003). The first is that, according to Family Systems Theory, each dyadic relationship within the family (e.g. adolescent-mother) exists independently but also is embedded within the family-level network (Cox & Paley, 2003). Family Systems Theory highlights the need to examine both individual relationships and family-level functioning, to understand family linkages with adolescent internalizing symptoms. Secondly, Family Systems Theory underscores the mutual influence and interdependence of adolescents and family members (Cox & Paley, 2003). Accordingly, it is necessary to examine how positive family functioning influences adolescent internalizing symptoms and to examine how adolescent internalizing symptoms shape positive family functioning (Abaied & Rudolph, 2014) Little is known about how Hispanic adolescent internalizing symptoms are bidirectionally linked with positive family functioning, as the limited bidirectional modeling has focused predominately on non-Hispanic White adolescents (Manongdo et al., 2011; Simpson, 2019). Among these families, adolescent internalizing symptoms have been linked with family functioning over time, including less parental support and less open adolescent-parent communication (Ha et al., 2009; Russell et al., 2019), perhaps because of a strain on familial relationships (Abaied & Rudolph, 2014; Cox & Paley, 2003).

In an important bidirectional examination of maternal parenting and youth mental health among Mexican American adolescents, Manongdo and Ramírez García (2011) reported that adolescent internalizing symptoms at time 1 predicted lower supportive parenting at time 2, whereas, unexpectedly, supportive parenting at Time 1 did not predict internalizing symptoms at time 2. The unanticipated findings from this study help demonstrate the need for a finer-grained examination of positive family functioning and adolescent internalizing symptoms among Hispanic samples. It is possible that some indicators of family functioning, such as family-level support and relationships with fathers, heretofore unexamined, help to prevent adolescent internalizing symptoms through unique pathways outside of the adolescent-mother relationship. Indeed, a meta-analysis of maternal and paternal parenting behaviors and child anxiety found that the association between parenting and child anxiety symptoms was stronger for fathers than for mothers (Möller et al., 2016). With respect to patriarchal parent gender roles in traditional families, including Hispanic families, mothers may be expected to protect and nurture, whereas fathers may be expected to promote independence and exploration. It may be these gendered parenting patterns each confer different protections against adolescent internalizing symptoms in Hispanic families. However, there is a paucity of research examining how adolescent-mother and adolescent-father relationships shape adolescent internalizing symptoms over time for Hispanic families (García et al., 2014). One correlational study of Hispanic adolescents found that paternal support, but not maternal support, was linked with fewer adolescent depressive symptoms (Behnke et al., 2011). A key contribution of the present study is examination of both maternal and paternal relationship indicators in Hispanic families and adolescent internalizing symptoms over time. Relatedly, is it also possible that supportive family mechanisms may be impacted by adolescent internalizing symptoms. Research with a diverse sample of older adolescents, conducted by Russell and colleagues (2019) demonstrated that adolescent depressive and anxiety symptoms predict changes in different indicators of family functioning but along gendered pathways. Understanding these mechanisms is essential for the creation of family-based prevention and early intervention programs that will benefit Hispanic adolescents.

The Present Study

Adolescents are at risk for developing internalizing symptoms, elevated for Hispanic adolescents (Kann, et al., 2017). Positive family functioning is linked with fewer adolescent internalizing symptoms, but little is known about bidirectional pathways over time between internalizing symptoms and positive family functioning among Hispanic adolescents. Because adolescents are embedded within a mutually influential family context, it is important to understand not only how positive family functioning may predict fewer adolescent internalizing symptoms, but also how adolescent internalizing symptoms may influence positive family functioning (Cox & Paley, 2003; Manongdo & Ramírez García, 2011). Furthermore, it is important to consider gender, as Hispanic girls may be particularly sensitive to positive family functioning and the roles of mothers and fathers may differ (Updegraff et al., 2009).

The purpose of the present study was to investigate bidirectional associations between positive family functioning and internalizing symptoms in Hispanic adolescents, residing in the United States, over time. Because the early adolescent years see dynamic changes in both family functioning and adolescent internalizing symptoms, bidirectional associations were examined using a 6-month interval (Hollenstein & Lougheed, 2013). In addition, we sought to investigate if the link between positive family functioning and internalizing symptoms varies as a function of adolescent and parent gender. Accordingly, it was hypothesized that positive family functioning would predict fewer adolescent internalizing symptoms over time, and secondly, that adolescent internalizing symptoms would predict decreases in positive family functioning. In keeping with the second aim, it was hypothesized that the protective effects of positive family functioning for internalizing symptoms would be more pronounced for adolescent girls than boys. Lastly, it was hypothesized that the adolescent-father relationship would provide independent protection against internalizing symptoms, above and beyond the adolescent-mother relationship (Behnke et al., 2011; Updegraff et al., 2009).

Method

Transparency and Openness

We report how we determined our sample size, all data exclusions, all manipulations, and all measures in the study. Data are not publicly available. Additional information about the project, including study materials, is available on the website (https://pandaresearchproject.org/). For Mplus code, please contact the first author. This study’s design and analysis were not preregistered.

Participants

Data were derived from 340 adolescents (51% female, Mage = 13.27, SD = .77 years) who participated in a larger longitudinal study (N = 1,589) investigating symptoms of anxiety and depression in early adolescence. All adolescents enrolled fulltime in 7th and 8th grade in five public middle schools in the New England area of the United States were eligible to participate in the larger study, regardless of race/ethnicity. The current sample consisted only of adolescents who self-identified as Hispanic or Latino, and/or as a majority Hispanic/Latino nationality (e.g. “Mexican”) on the survey at the time of participation. Most adolescents reported living with their biological mother (89%), whereas, only 42% of adolescents reported living with their biological father. In addition, 2% of adolescents reported living with a step-mother and 25% reported living with a step-father. Adolescents reported that 68% of mothers and 51% of fathers had completed, on average, less than or equal to a high school education/GED. Participant retention from Time 1 to Time 2 was high (n=284; 84%; 52% female).

Procedure

All parents were informed about the study through a parent consent form sent to adolescent students’ homes as part of the larger study. Parents allowed their adolescents to participate in the study via passive consent, so adolescents were not required to return signed parental consent forms. If parents did not consent to adolescent participation, they were instructed to indicate this decision through written or verbal communication to the research team. Adolescents engaged in an informed assent process prior to survey completion. No parents refused adolescent participation. About 7% of Hispanic adolescents declined to participate. An additional 7% of Hispanic adolescents were absent on the day of data collection. Data collection took place at participating middle schools during the regular school day. Trained study personnel distributed paper surveys to adolescents, who were given a movie voucher in thanks for their participation. The survey took about one hour to complete and was in English. No adolescents were excluded because of language proficiency. Data collection took place in the fall of 2016 and again approximately six months later in the spring of 2017. The Institutional Review Board of Connect Children’s Medical Center approved all study procedures.

Measures

Adolescents first completed a demographic questionnaire for adolescent gender, race/ethnicity, age, and highest level of parent’s completed education. For race/ethnicity, adolescents included in these analyses either selected Hispanic and/or wrote in a majority Spanish-speaking nationality.

Adolescent-parent open communication.

Adolescents completed the Open Communication subscale of the Parent-Adolescent Communication Scale (PACS) individually for mothers and fathers. Instructions prompted adolescents to report on the male and female guardians they saw as fulfilling the mother and father roles, regardless of whether families lived together or not and regardless of parent’s biological status (Barnes & Olson, 2003). The Open Communication subscale of the PACS measured the degree to which adolescents generally felt free to express themselves and shared mutual understanding in typical interactions with parents. The subscale contains 10 items, which are responded to on a 5-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). Higher scores indicate more open communication. Example items include “I find it easy to discuss problems with my mother/father” and “If I were in trouble, I could tell my mother/father.” The PACS has shown good reliability and validity when used in Hispanic adolescent samples (α = .89–.91, Córdova et al., 2016; α = .90; Martinez et al., 2017; α = .87). In the current sample, internal consistency was high for open communication with mother at Time 1 and Time 2 (α = .91 and .93, respectively) and for open communication with father at Time 1 and Time 2 (α = .93 and .94, respectively).

Family support.

Positive family functioning was further assessed using the Family subscale of the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS; Zimet et al., 1988). The Family subscale assessed the degree to which adolescents felt supported by their family. The subscale contains 4 items that are responded to using a 7-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (very strongly disagree) to 7 (very strongly agree). Instructions asked adolescents to indicate how they felt about statements describing their family, such as “My family really tries to help me” and “I get the emotional help and support I need from my family.” The MSPSS has demonstrated strong psychometric properties in Hispanic adolescent samples (α = 0.93, Bacio et al., 2015; α =.88, Edwards, 2004; α = .89). In the current sample, α = .90 and .94 at Time 1 and Time 2, respectively.

Anxiety symptoms.

Adolescents completed The Screen for Child Anxiety Related Disorders, a report of adolescents’ anxiety symptoms (SCARED; Birmaher et al., 1995). The scale contains 41 items on a 3-point Likert scale from 0 (not true or hardly every true) to 2 (very true or often true). Adolescents were asked to think about their feelings and experiences over the past three months. Example items include “People tell me that I worry too much” and “I worry about going to school.” Higher scores indicate more anxiety symptoms. Extant work supports the psychometric properties of the SCARED in Hispanic samples (α = .95, Kuhlman et al., 2023; α = .88, Quiñones-Camacho & Davis, 2023). In the current sample, α = .95 and .96, at Time 1 and Time 2, respectively.

Depressive symptoms.

To assess depressive symptoms, adolescents completed the Center for Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale for Children (CES-DC; Weissman et al., 1980). The instructions of the CES-DC asked adolescents to respond to 20 items about how they were feeling over the past week. Adolescents responded to statements on a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 0 (not at all) to 3 (a lot), with higher scores indicating greater depressive symptoms. Example items include “I felt down and unhappy” and “I was more quiet than usual.” The CES-DC has shown good psychometric properties in Hispanic samples (α = .86, Coatsworth et al., 2002; α = .90, Taylor & Ruiz, 2017). In the current sample, α = .91 and .93 at Time 1 and Time 2, respectively.

Plan of Analysis

No power analyses were conducted prior to the study to determine sample size. Additional data were collected beyond Time 2, but extremely low participant retention at Time 3 prohibited inclusion of these data in the current study. Descriptive statistics were examined at Time 1 and Time 2. Independent sample t-tests investigated differences between adolescents participating only at Time 1 and adolescents participating at both time points. Additionally, Little’s test for Missing Completely at Random (MCAR) was performed (Little, 1988). Correlations were examined for girls and boys at Time 1. Independent sample t-tests investigated gender differences between internalizing symptoms and positive family functioning at Time 1. Next, a path model was constructed with adolescent internalizing symptoms and positive family functioning at Time 1 predicting changes in adolescent internalizing symptoms and positive family functioning at Time 2. In this model, adolescent anxiety and depressive symptoms at T1 predicted family support, adolescent open communication with mothers, and adolescent open communication with fathers at T2. Within the same model, family support, adolescent open communication with mothers, and adolescent open communication with fathers at T1 predicted adolescent anxiety and depressive symptoms at T1. Therefore, this bidirectional model examined how adolescent internalizing symptoms predicted changes in family functioning as well as how family functioning predicted changes in internalizing symptoms. For model identification, covariances between uncorrelated T2 variables were set to zero.

The full model was constructed in stages, with preliminary models examining positive family functioning variables individually. The full bidirectional model initially controlled for participant age and mean education of mothers and fathers, but these predictors were not significant for any outcomes and did not improve model fit. Therefore, participant age and parent education were removed from the final model. Because of the variability in family composition, biological and step father’s residential status (living with adolescent or not) also were examined. Inclusion of either variable did not improve model fit or significantly predict any outcomes. In an additional step, biological and step father’s residence were examined using multiple groups. However, there was no significant difference in regression coefficients in constrained models vs. free models, suggesting that results did not differ by father’s residence. As a consequence, father’s residence is not included in the final model.

Although these analyses could be performed with multiple regression analyses, regression does not account for covariance among outcome variables. As some key study outcome variables were correlated (e.g. adolescent anxiety and depressive symptoms), a path analysis was conducted in Mplus version 8 (Muthén, & Muthén, 1998–2017). Full Information Maximum Likelihood (FIML) estimation was used to address missing data (Wothke, 2000).

To examine gender differences, a multiple group bidirectional path analysis was performed with girls and boys. Previous empirical work and theory supported different bidirectional pathways for girls and boys, and performing a multiple group comparison allowed for unique paths to emerge for girls and boys (Lorenzo-Blanco et al., 2012). As part of preliminary model building, each positive family functioning variable was examined as an individual predictor, before including all positive family functioning variables simultaneously in the full and final model. Next, the full model was constructed and tested. In the first step for the full model, a fully unconstrained model was estimated with all parameters free to vary across girls and boys. Model fit was determined by evaluating the comparative fit index (CFI), using the recommended cutoff of CFI >.95 (Bentler, 1990). The root mean error square of approximation (RMSEA) also was examined, following fit recommendations of RMSEA <.06 (Hu & Bentler, 1999). The standardized root mean residual square (SRMR) also was evaluated, utilizing SRMR <.08 as an indicator of model fit (Hu & Bentler, 1999). The fully unconstrained model then was compared with nested models constraining intercepts, means, variances, residuals, regression coefficients, and covariances to equality for girls and boys (Vandenberg & Lance, 2000).

Results

Descriptive Statistics and Bivariate Analyses

Table 1 includes Time 1 descriptive statistics and correlations. Adolescents participating only at Time 1 did not differ from adolescents participating at both Time 1 and Time 2 for any study or demographic variables (all ps >.05). Little’s MCAR test indicated that data were missing completely at random (Little, 1988). As shown in Table 1, adolescent-mother open communication, adolescent-father open communication, and family support were positively correlated at Time 1 for girls and boys. Similarly, girls’ and boys’ anxiety and depressive symptoms were positively correlated at Time 1. In addition, positive family functioning and internalizing symptoms were negatively correlated for girls and boys at Time 1. There were no mean-level gender differences in the positive family functioning variables at Time 1 for girls and boys; however, girls had significantly higher mean levels of depressive and anxiety symptoms than boys at Time 1 (t = −2.49, −5.19, ps <.01, respectively).

Table 1.

Correlations, Means, and Standard Deviations for Study Variables at Time 1

Variable 1 2 3 4 5 Mean SD
1. Adolescent-Mother Open Communication -- .46*** .64*** −.37*** −.18*** 39.00 8.28
2. Adolescent-Father Open Communication .39*** -- .54*** −.38*** −.24*** 37.24 9.80
3. Family Support .70*** .44*** -- −.34*** −.18*** 5.43 1.38
4. Adolescent Depressive Symptoms −.41*** −.40*** −.44*** -- .60*** 13.29** 9.85
5. Adolescent Anxiety Symptoms −.13*** −-.25*** −.18*** .69*** -- 17.76*** 12.98
Mean 38.50 35.09 5.31 17.77** 27.36*** -- --
SD 10.05 10.75 1.45 12.21 16.39 -- --
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Note. Means and correlations for boys and girls are presented above and below the diagonal, respectively. The means for both boys and girls are marked with * to indicate significant gender differences.

*

p < .05;

**

p < .01;

***

p < .001

Multiple Group Comparison Analyses

Results for preliminary models are depicted in Table 2. These preliminary models fit the data well. For the full model, a multiple group comparison analysis was performed in order to examine if the bidirectional path model fit was equivalent for girls and boys. The fully unconstrained model adequately fit the data (X2 (6) = 12.96, p < .035; CFI = .99; RMSEA = .08, SRMR = .02). This model was compared with models constraining intercepts (X2 (11) = 28.21, p <.01; CFI = .98; RMSEA = .10, SRMR = .04), means (X2 (11) = 16.53, p =.12; CFI = .99; RMSEA = .06, SRMR = .05), variances (X2 (11) = 22.51, p <.05; CFI = .99; RMSEA = .08, SRMR = .04), regression coefficients (X2 (30) = 52.42, p = <.01; CFI = .97; RMSEA = .06, SRMR = =.053), and covariances (X2 (13) = 19.48, p =.11; CFI = .99; RMSEA = .05, SRMR = <.05) to equality for girls and boys. Nested model comparison testing was performed using chi-square difference tests. Results indicated that models constraining intercepts (ΔX2 = 15.25, Δdf = 5, p <.05) and regression coefficients (ΔX2 = 39.46, Δdf = 25, p <.05) to equality for girls and boys demonstrated significantly worse fit than the fully unconstrained model. Constraining means, variances, and covariances to equality for girls and boys did not demonstrate worse fit. Results from the final model with unconstrained intercepts and regression coefficients are presented for girls and boys (X2 (23) = 29.76, p =.16; CFI = .99; RMSEA = .04, SRMR = .06).

Table 2.

Testing Preliminary Models for Girls and Boys

Family Support T2 Open Com Mother T2 Open Com Father T2 Ado Dep Symptoms T2 Ado Anx Symptoms T2
Preliminary Model 1 β β β β β
Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys
Ado Dep Symptoms −.16 −.59*** -- -- -- -- .44*** .52*** .04 .32**
Ado Anx Symptoms .11 .47** -- -- -- -- .23* .12 .68*** .50***
Family Support .52*** .38*** -- -- -- -- −.20* −.05 −.15* .11
Preliminary Model 2 -- --
Ado Dep Symptoms -- -- −.06 −.15 -- -- .39*** .47*** .10 .25
Ado Anx Symptoms -- -- −.01 .03 -- -- .25* .19 .65*** .53***
Open Com Mother -- -- .67*** .54*** -- -- −.25** −.02 −.06 .05
Preliminary Model 3 -- --
Ado Dep Symptoms -- -- -- -- −.27* .04 .49*** .46*** .06 .11
Ado Anx Symptoms -- -- -- -- .15 −.02 .22* .20 .65*** .56***
Open Com Father -- -- -- -- .56*** .70*** −.22** −.06 − 23** −.17
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Note. Girls/Boys coefficients shown.

*

denotes p<.05,

**

denotes p<.01, and

***

denotes p<.001. Open Com Mother= Open Communication with Mother; Open Com Father= Open Communication with Father; Ado Dep Symptoms=Adolescent Depressive Symptoms; Ado Anx Symptoms =Adolescent Anxiety Symptoms; T2= Time 2

Bidirectional Path Results for Girls

As shown in Table 3, open communication with mothers and open communication with fathers at Time 1 predicted fewer adolescent depressive symptoms for girls at Time 2 in the full model (β = −.21, −.20 ps < .05, respectively). Open communication with fathers at Time 1 also predicted fewer anxiety symptoms for girls at Time 2 (β = −.21, p < .01). Family support did not significantly predict any changes in girls’ internalizing symptoms at Time 2 in the full model, however, family support predicted fewer girls’ depressive symptoms at Time 2 in the preliminary model, a modest effect suppressed by the addition of open communication with mothers in the full model. Depicting pathways from internalizing symptoms at Time 1 to changes in positive family functioning at Time 2, Table 3 also shows that for girls, depressive symptoms at Time 1 predicted less open communication with fathers at Time 2 (β = −.31, p < .05). Girls’ anxiety symptoms at Time 1 did not significantly predict any changes in open communication with mothers or family support at Time 2. Overall, results demonstrated that open communication with mothers predicted fewer depressive symptoms over time for girls, and that open communication with fathers predicted fewer depressive and anxiety symptoms for girls. Girls’ depressive symptoms predicted less open communication with fathers over time.

Table 3.

Final Model for Girls and Boys

Family Support T2 Open Com Mother T2 Open Com Father T2 Ado Dep Symptoms T2 Ado Anx Symptoms T2
Final Model β β β β β
Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys Girls Boys
Ado Dep Symptoms −.02 −52*** .02 −.19 −.31* −.02 .30* .51*** −.01 .23
Ado Anx Symptoms .03 .39** −.05 .16 .15 .08 .29** .13 .69*** .54***
Family Support .33** .27* .12 .17 .25* −.05 −.06 −.08 −.14 .14
Open Com Mother .30** .15 .58*** .38** −.35** −.06 −.21* .08 .01 .08
Open Com Father .13 .03 .04 .07 .56*** .76*** −.20* −.06 −.21** −.21*
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Note. Girls/Boys coefficients shown.

*

denotes p<.05,

**

denotes p<.01, and

***

denotes p<.001. Open Com Mother= Open Communication with Mother; Open Com Father= Open Communication with Father; Ado Dep Symptoms=Adolescent Depressive Symptoms; Ado Anx Symptoms =Adolescent Anxiety Symptoms

Full Bidirectional Path Results for Boys

Table 3 also shows the bidirectional path model for boys. As with girls, boys’ open communication with fathers predicted significant decreases in anxiety symptoms (β = −.21, p < .01). As shown, boys’ depressive symptoms at Time 1 predicted decreases in family support at Time 2 (β = −.52, p < .01). In contrast, boys’ anxiety symptoms at Time 1 significantly predicted increases in family support at Time 2 (β = .39, p < .05).

Discussion

Drawing on the transactional context of the family highlighted by Family Systems Theory (Cox & Paley, 2003), the present study examined bidirectional associations over time between adolescent internalizing symptoms and positive family functioning in a community sample of Hispanic adolescents residing in New England. It was first hypothesized that positive family functioning, including open communication and family support, would be associated with decreases in adolescent internalizing symptoms over time. Results indicated that open adolescent-parent communication with mothers and fathers predicted fewer depressive symptoms for girls. Open adolescent-father communication predicted fewer anxiety symptoms for girls and also for boys. Taken together, the findings suggest that positive family functioning promotes psychological adjustment for Hispanic adolescents (García et al., 2014). Moreover, results highlight the utility of family members as sources of support for Hispanic populations. Even though peers are becoming increasingly important for adolescent psychological adjustment, parents remain essential for adolescent social and emotional well-being.

The second hypothesis was that adolescent internalizing symptoms would predict decreases in family functioning over time in this Hispanic sample. Findings supported hypotheses, as girls’ depressive symptoms predicted decreases in open adolescent-father communication. Similarly, boys’ depressive symptoms predicted decreases in family support. These results indicating that adolescent internalizing symptoms predicted changes in family functioning over time are in keeping with the family-level stress posited to occur in the context of adolescent internalizing symptoms, as adolescents’ depressive symptoms may strain family relationships (Abaied & Rudolph, 2014). In addition to family-level stress, it also is possible that adolescent-parent relationships are being disrupted at the dyadic-level, as mothers and fathers may struggle to engage with adolescents experiencing elevated depressive symptoms. Indeed, other research with Hispanic samples also has found that adolescent depressive symptoms are associated with less maternal support (Manongdo & Ramírez García, 2011).

Interestingly, however, boys’ anxiety symptoms predicted increases in family support. Although unexpected, it is possible that features of boys’ anxiety may be likely to elicit increased attention and care from family as a compensatory reaction. Namely, boys’ anxiety symptoms may be tied more closely to broader psychosocial maladjustment than girls’ anxiety symptoms, perhaps making it easier for families to detect and respond to sons’ psychological distress in supportive ways (Derdikman-Eiron, et al., 2011). Social constructions of gender also may play a role. Given that boys’ anxiety symptoms are discordant with some stereotyped beliefs about how men should act, gender norms around the need for men to be dominant and confident may sensitize families to perceive boys’ anxiety symptoms more readily compared with girls (Falicov, 2010). Alternatively, it also is possible that the complex mechanisms shaping family functioning outcomes may operate differently in varying ecological contexts, as associations between family functioning variables and youth anxiety symptoms may differ across Hispanic cultural contexts. For instance, it is possible that the broader social context, including discrimination and oppression of Hispanic individuals in the United States, may shape familial responses to Hispanic boys’ anxiety symptoms, especially if families perceive links with discrimination, which boys may experience more frequently than girls (Delgado et al., 2019). Future research may help to clarify bidirectional pathways by examining other contextual moderators, such as discrimination, but this study sheds light on the dynamic relationships within families, including Hispanic families.

The second aim of the current study was to examine gender differences in bidirectional pathways linking adolescent internalizing symptoms and family functioning for Hispanic youth. The third study hypothesis was that the protective effects of positive family functioning for internalizing symptoms would be more pronounced for adolescent girls than for adolescent boys. Adolescent gender differences supported hypotheses. The findings demonstrated multiple pathways from family functioning to fewer internalizing symptoms over time for adolescent girls but only one for boys. Other research has similarly suggested that Hispanic girls may be more sensitive than Hispanic boys to family effects (García et al., 2014). A gendered emphasis on relational intimacy and interpersonal harmony may help sensitize girls to the protective characteristics of the family. It may be that heightened salience of the family’s social dynamics emphasizes the relational utility of family members as sources of support and warmth for girls. Alternatively, it may be that Hispanic adolescent girls spend more time with family members, compared with Hispanic boys, providing more opportunity for family emotional or instrumental support. Hispanic boys may be more sensitive than Hispanic girls to other supportive social relationships, such as peers, rather than family relationships. This study helps to identify important family processes amenable to intervention. Namely, that targeted family-based interventions for adolescent internalizing symptoms should focus on strengthening positive family functioning for girls, whereas other mechanisms may be more beneficial for boys.

The final aim of the present study was to examine parent gender differences with respect to adolescent-mother and adolescent-father open communication in the bidirectional model. Based on previous research on Hispanic adolescents, it was hypothesized that adolescent-father relationships would uniquely predict adolescent internalizing symptoms in our Hispanic sample, independent from adolescent-mother relationships (Behnke et al., 2011; García et al., 2014). Findings provide support, as open communication with fathers emerged as a significant predictor of depressive and anxiety symptoms for girls, above and beyond open communication with mothers. Similarly, open communication with fathers predicted fewer anxiety symptoms for boys. It has been posited that relationships with fathers may be salient for Hispanic adolescents, at least in part, because of lower interaction frequency and greater relational variability compared with maternal relationships (García et al., 2014). Hispanic girls, in particular, spend more time with mothers than fathers (Updegraff et al. 2009). They may also report greater stability over time in emotional closeness with mothers than with fathers. Therefore, more consistent open communication with mothers may manifest less influential change over time than open communication with fathers. In addition, girls’ depressive symptoms also predicted less open communication with fathers. It may be that fathers, compared with mothers, are more likely to withdraw from daughters experiencing depressive symptoms. Alternatively, adolescent daughters experiencing depressive symptoms may choose to shift interpersonal resources toward other sources of emotional support (i.e. friends) in the context of depressive symptoms. Study findings highlight complex gendered pathways linking adolescent internalizing symptoms and family functioning in a sample of Hispanic adolescents. These results demonstrate the unique role of fathers for adolescent internalizing symptoms. Transactional findings highlight the need for future research to continue to examine bidirectional pathways among minority adolescents.

Limitations and Implications for Future Research

Although several strengths characterized the current study, including bidirectional analyses and the examination of adolescent and parent gender differences, there were limitations. All of the data were self-report. Adolescents have been shown to be reliable self-reporters, but there may be discrepancies between adolescent and parent reports of family functioning that are relevant for adolescent internalizing symptoms. Even with the absence of parent report, adolescent perception of the family predicts adolescent internalizing symptoms, which is key for prevention science. Nevertheless, future research should examine multiple reporters in bidirectional models. Importantly, understanding of the family system as a whole is limited with only adolescent report of the family. Without parent reports, it remains unclear if mothers and fathers also report changes in adolescent internalizing symptoms or positive family functioning. Relatedly, adolescents were permitted to identify who they saw fulfilling the gendered parental roles of mother and father, meaning that some adolescents were likely reporting on biological parents, whereas others may have been reporting on step parents, or even multigenerational figures, such as grandparents. Second, the data from this sample did not include information about countries of origin/nativity, English/Spanish proficiency, time in the United States, or generational status. As a consequence, it is unclear how results from this sample may apply to Hispanic youth of different origins (e.g., Mexican, Puerto Rican, etc.), different language proficiencies, or first/second generation immigrants. More research is needed to understand how related factors, such as cultural values and practices, may shape bidirectional associations for heterogeneous samples of Hispanic youth. Third, the time between Time 1 and Time 2 was only six months in duration. Although changes within this time may be meaningful, particularly for early adolescents experiencing normative changes in family functioning, longer time intervals may provide a more comprehensive understanding of bidirectional pathways across adolescent development. Finally, it is important for future research to examine potential moderators of the gendered pathways linking girls’ internalizing symptoms with adolescent-father communication, such as time spent with fathers and mothers, to clarify mechanisms linking gendered adolescent-parent relationships with adolescent psychosocial adjustment in Hispanic samples.

Overall, study findings highlight the utility in examining bidirectional pathways between adolescent internalizing symptoms and family functioning over time for Hispanic adolescents. Results provide support for the complexity of bidirectional mechanisms posited by Family Systems Theory. Findings also emphasize both adolescent and parent gender differences with respect to predictive pathways linking adolescent internalizing symptoms with family support and adolescent-parent communication. Notably, the findings replicate Hispanic gender differences in the differential effects of family functioning for early adolescent girls’ internalizing symptoms, compared with boys’ symptoms (Updegraff et al., 2009). Limited findings regarding the significance of adolescent-father relationships for Hispanic youth also were replicated (García et al., 2014). The current study investigated bidirectional pathways, demonstrating that family functioning may be influenced by earlier adolescent internalizing symptoms. Such information is vital to the future creation of effective family-based early intervention and prevention efforts targeting Hispanic adolescent internalizing symptoms.

Acknowledgements:

This research was funded by the Alvord foundation and Connecticut Children’s. Emily G. Simpson was supported by the National Institute on Drug Abuse T32DA017629. We would like to thank all of the adolescents who dedicated their time to completing this study. We also acknowledge the tireless work of the PANDA research project staff, especially Sonja Gagnon, Anna Vannucci, Melanie Klinck, Victoria Galica, Kaitlin Flannery, Katie Newkirk, and Nicole Watkins.

Footnotes

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.

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