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. 2024 Feb 3;44(2):260–267. doi: 10.19852/j.cnki.jtcm.20240203.003

Anti-inflammatory mechanism of the non-volatile ingredients originated from Guanghuoxiang (Pogostemonis Herba) based on high performance liquid chromatography-heated electron spray ionization-high resolution mass spectroscope and cell metabolomics

Wenguang JING 1, Xiaoyu LIN 2, Chu LI 2, Xiaoliang ZHAO 3, Xianlong CHENG 1, Penglong WANG 2, Feng WEI 1,✉, Shuangcheng MA 1,✉
PMCID: PMC10927411  PMID: 38504532

Abstract

OBJECTIVE:

To explore the anti-inflammatory components and mechanism of the non-volatile ingredients of patchouli.

METHODS:

High performance liquid chromatography-heated electron spray ionization-high resolution mass spectroscope (HPLC-HESI-HRMS) was used to analyze the chemical constituents of the non-volatile ingredients of patchouli. The anti-inflammatory activity of ingredients was evaluated using lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced RAW264.7 cell inflammation model, and the anti-inflammatory mechanism was investigated using multivariate statistical analysis of cell metabolomics.

RESULTS:

The non-volatile ingredients of patchouli were characterized by HPLC-HESI-HRMS, and 36 flavonoids and 18 other components were identified. These ingredients of patchouli not only had a good protective effect on the LPS-induced inflammation model of RAW264.7 cells, but also regulated the expression levels of arginine, L-leucine, cholesterol, fructose and sorbitol by down-regulating arginine metabolism, aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis, polyol/sorbitol pathway, so as to reduce inflammation and reduce cell damage.

CONCLUSION:

The non-volatile ingredients of patchouli had good anti-inflammatory effect and exerted its curative effect by regulating endogenous metabolic pathway to reduce inflammatory response.

Keywords: Pogostemon, non-volatile ingredients, anti-inflammatory, cell metabolomics

1. INTRODUCTION

Guanghuoxiang (Pogostemonis Herba) is the dry ground part of Pogostemon cablin (Blanco) Benth, a plant in the Liliaceae family. It is pungent and warm, resolving dampness with aromatics, regulating stomach for lowering adverse Qi, dispelling summer heat to relieve exterior syndrome and other traditional effects.1 Monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, as starting platforms for antiviral drug development, had great potential in the treatment of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection.2,3 At present, patchouli volatile oil and its component (patchouli alcohol) played an adjuvant role in the treatment of SARS-CoV-2 infection, providing a potential choice for subsequent drug development.4 The phytochemistry of patchouli has been extensively studied, and its components were mainly volatile components (sesquiterpenoids) and non-volatile components including other terpenes, pyrones, flavonoids, phenylpropanes, phytosterols, organic acids, polysaccharides, and others.5,⇓-7 Pharmacological research objects of patchouli mainly focus on volatile oil8-10 and its single components patchouli alcohol11, 12 and pogostone,13,14 which had the efficacy of regulating gastrointestinal activity,15,⇓,⇓-18 inhibiting pathogenic microorganisms,19,⇓-21 anti-inflammatory activity,22,23 anti-tumor effect,24,25 insecticidal activity,26 etc.

Terpenes, flavonoids and phenylpropanes accounted for 40%, 20% and 10% of the patchouli total components;27 while most of the previous studies just focused on the volatile oil components of terpenes and paid little attention to non-volatile ingredients. In fact, the flavonoids in patchouli also had unique activities. For example, pachypodol was a crude methanol extract from dried leaves of patchouli, which protected liver cells from oxidative damage.28 Therefore, to expand and break through the traditional medicinal value of patchouli, it was necessary to further search for natural products with anti-inflammatory pharmacological activity. In this study, the chemical constituents of non-volatile ingredients of patchouli were systematically analyzed, and the anti-inflammatory mechanism of this part was investigated by cell metabolomics, which provided reference for the subsequent study of non-volatile ingredients of patchouli.

2. MATERIALS AND METHODS

2.1. Materials and reagents

Patchouli was collected in Zhanjiang, Guangdong Province, which was identified as genuine by Professor Wei Feng (National Institutes for Food and Drug Control); RAW264.7 (mouse monocyte-macrophage leukemia cells) was purchased from the Cell Bank of Shanghai Chinese Academy of Sciences; L-Argininine monohydrocholoride, D-Sorbitol were bought from Shanghai Yuanye Biotechnology Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China).

Methyl thiazolyl tetrazolium (MTT), lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and nitric oxide (NO) detection kit were purchased from Beijing Biorigin Biotechnology Co., Ltd. (Beijing, China); AB-8 macroporous adsorption resin was purchased from Shanghai Yuanye Biotechnology Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China); Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) was purchased from Beijing Chemical Plant (Beijing, China); Methanol (analytical pure) and ethanol (analytical pure) were purchased from Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Company (Beijing, China); methanol (chromatographically pure) and acetonitrile (chromatographically pure) was purchased from Thermo Fisher Technology Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China); the water was Merk Millipore purified water (Billerica, MA, USA).

2.2. Sample extraction, separation and purification

The patchouli leaves (30 g) crushed into powder and sifted. The powder was extracted by ultrasonic extraction with 300 mL methanol for 2 times, 1 h each time. Then the extraction solution was combined, and the methanol was recovered by decompression concentration. The macroporous adsorption resin (AB-8) was eluted with three times the volume of water, 20% ethanol, 40% alcohol, 60% ethanol, 80% ethanol and 100% ethanol, respectively. Combined with 80%-100% fractions, the solvent was recovered under pressure, and then freeze-dried to obtain 1.2 g of the non-volatile ingredients.

2.3. Statistical analysis

In this study, SPSS software version 20.0 (IBM Corp., Armonk, NY, USA) was used for one-way analysis of variance. Student’s t-test was used for statistical significance (P < 0.05). All measures were repeated at least three times and expressed as mean ± standard deviation ($\bar{x}±s$).

3. RESULTS

3.1. Identification of the constituents in non-volatile ingredients of Patchouli

A total of 54 compounds were preliminarily identified in this study, including 27 flavonoids, 9 flavonoid glycosides, and 18 other compounds (such as phenylpropyl, organic acids, terpenoids, etc.), among which 14 compounds were identified by comparison with standard substances (Figure 1, supplementary Table 1). Due to their similar skeleton structure (C6-C3-C6), flavonoids had similar pathways of mass spectrum fragmentation, such as neutral loss of protonated molecules (tending to remove CO, CO2, H2O, CH3, etc.) and RDA cleavage (Retro Diels-Alder reaction).29 Moreover, flavonoid glycosides were more inclined to break their glycosyl bonds when they lost their glycosyl groups.30

Figure 1. Total ion flow diagram of standard substances and the non-volatile ingredients of patchouli.

Figure 1

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A: total ion flow diagram of the standard; B: total ion flow diagram of the sample.

Compound 18 was Apigenin and its protonated molecule [M+H]+ was observed at m/z 271.0601. The loss of CO on the C ring results in [M+H-CO]+ having a fragment ion at m/z 243.1019. In addition, the continuous loss of H2O and C2H2O from the precursor ions produced a fragment ion [M+H-H2O-C2H2O]+ at m/z 211.0713. Moreover, a fragment ion appeared at m/z 163.0387 [M+H-0,4B+]+ by RDA reaction. Compound 4 was identified as Apigetrin and a deprotonated molecule [M-H]- was observed at m/z 431.0983 in the negative ion mode. It produced a fragment ion m/z 268.0392, resulting from the lost the glucose molecule [M-H-C6H11O5]-. The cleavage pathway of Apigetrin was the same as that of Apigenin after the glucose molecule was removed. It could also be observed in m/z 199.0064 [M-H-C6H11O5-H2O-C2H2O]- and m/z 162.8373 [M-H-C6H11O5-0,4B-]- that the precursor ion removed H2O and C2H2O fragments and the fragments generated by the decomposition of RDA.

Compounds 51 was identified as 5-hydroxy-3,7,3',4'-dimethoxyflavone, whose precursor ion could be observed at m/z 359.1121. It had multiple CH3 in its structure and could gain fragment ions by losing CH3 in succession. Its fragment ions in m/z 344.0889 ([M+H-CH3]+), m/z 329.0678 ([M+H-CH3-CH3]+), m/z 301.0685 ([M+H-CH3-CH3-CO]+) and m/z 283.0951 ([M+H-CH3-CH3-H2O]+) could be observed in positive ion mode. Similarly, a similar cleavage could be observed in compound 46 (Pachypodol), compound 47 (7, 3', 4'-Tri-O-methyleriodictyol), compound 54 (5-hydroxy-3, 7, 4'-dimethoxyflavone), etc.

The flavonoid parts of patchouli were characterized by HPLC-HESI-HRMS, and 36 flavonoids were preliminatively identified, which laid the foundation for the activity characterization below.

3.2. Protective effect on LPS-induced cellular inflammation.

It had been found that the volatile components of patchouli, patchouli alcohol and β-patchoulene, had good anti-inflammatory effects on LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells.31,⇓-33 As shown in Figure 2A, the cytotoxicity of the non-volatile ingredients of patchouli to RAW264.7 was determined by MTT assay, and the administration was range from 5 to 30 mg/L. When the drug concentration was more than 10 mg/L, the drug had a serious damage to RAW264.7 cells. When the drug concentration was 15 mg/L or lower, the cell viability was 54.02% ± 5.51%, 37.17% ± 4.72%, 30.31% ± 1.38%, respectively, which had significant difference compared with the control group (P < 0.001). Therefore, the concentration below 10 mg/L was selected for the evaluation of anti-inflammatory activity to avoid the false-positive phenomenon in the determination of NO content due to the cell death caused by excessive drug concentration. After modeling RAW264.7 cells with LPS, the content of NO in the control group was significantly different from that in the model group (34.39% ± 1.45%), indicating that the cell inflammation model induced by 1 μg/mL LPS was successfully established. After the treatment of the non-volatile ingredients of patchouli, the content of NO produced by cells was significantly down-regulate. The dose of 10 mg/L had the best protective effect on RAW264.7 cell inflammation model, and the inhibition rate of NO production was 70.38% ± 3.01% (Figure 2B), showing a significant difference compared with the model group (P < 0.001). The effects of non-volatile ingredients of patchouli on proinflammatory cytokines interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) were also investigated. The contents of TNF-α and IL-6 in model group were significantly higher than control group (P < 0.001), indicating that LPS enhanced the production of the proinflammatory cytokine.

Figure 2. LPS induced cell inflammatory model.

Figure 2

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A: toxicity of the samples to RAW264.7; B: NO content of each sample; C: IL-6 content of each sample; D: TNF-α content of each sample. LPS: lipid polysaccharide. Control group: without treatment; Model group: treated with lipopolysaccharide; Sample group: treated with lipopolysaccharide and non-volatile ingredients of patchouli of 5, 7.5, 10 mg/L. IL-6: interleukin-6; TNF-α: tumor necrosis factor-α. Student’s-test was used for statistical significance (P < 0.05); data are presented as mean ± standard deviation (n = 3). Significant differences compared with control group were designated as aP < 0.001 and with model group as bP < 0.001.

3.3. Multivariate statistical analysis of metabonomics

The non-volatile ingredients of patchouli showed good anti-inflammatory effects in vitro cell models (Figure 2), so we further explored its mechanism from the perspective of cell metabolomics. As shown in Figure 3A, there was no significant difference in total ion flow diagram among the three groups, and the intensity of metabolites was similar. Therefore, we performed PCA (principal component analysis) analysis on all groups to obtain new linear variables (Figure 3B). It was found that there was a clear trend of differentiation among the normal group, model group and treated group. The results showed that the cell metabolism was affected by LPS-induced modeling, and the endogenous metabolites were significantly changed. Orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis (OPLS-DA) was used to improve the degree of clustering within the three groups (Figure 3C). In addition, OPLS-DA analysis was performed to compare the metabolic differences between the normal group and the model group, the treated group and the model group, respectively. R2Y represents the fit quality of the model, and Q2 represents the predictability of the model. Among them, the R2Y and Q2 between the normal group and the model group were 0.996 and 0.961, respectively (Figure 3D). Between the treated group and the model group, the parameters were R2Y = 0.986 and Q2 = 0.881 (Figure 3E). Their values of R2Y and Q2 were close to 1, indicating that the model selected by simca had high applicability and predictability.

Figure 3. Metabolomic difference analysis.

Figure 3

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A: total ion flow diagram of each group; B: PCA scores; C: OPLS-DA scores of normal group, model group and treated group; D: OPLS-DA scores of normal group and model group; E: OPLS-DA scores of the treated group and model group; F: S-plot of normal group and model group; G: S-plot of the treated group and model group; Control group: without treatment; Model group: treated with lipopolysaccharide; Sample group: treated with lipopolysaccharide and non-volatile ingredients of patchouli of 10 mg/L. PCA: principal component analysis; OPLS-DA: orthogonal partial least squares discriminant analysis. Student’s t-test was used for statistical significance (P < 0.05); Data are presented as mean ± standard deviation (n = 3).

The Variable importance projection (VIP) > 1 of the metabolites was shown in red in the Figure 3F-G, which was generally considered a great contribution to grouping. According to the conditions of VIP > 1 and P-value < 0.05, and combined with Human metabolome database (HMDB), the differential metabolites were identified and matched. A total of 53 common differential metabolites were screened (supplementary Table 2), which mainly contained organic acids, amino acids and amines. After further analysis of the above differential metabolites by clustering heat map, it was found that there were significant differences between the normal group and the model group, as well as between the treated group and the model group, indicating that the differential metabolites of the normal group and the treated group had different metabolic characteristics than the differential metabolites of the model group (Figure 4A, 4B). In particular, differential metabolites such as arginine and sorbitol were significantly up-regulated in LPS-induced cellular inflammation models (P < 0.01). However, after the intervention of the non-volatile ingredients of patchouli (Figure 4C, 4D), the regulation of these differential metabolites was reversed (P < 0.001).

Figure 4. Metabolomics pathway analysis.

Figure 4

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A: clustering heat map of differential metabolites in the normal group and the model group; B: clustering heat map of differential metabolites in the treated group and the model group; C: arginine levels in cell samples; D: sorbitol levels in cell samples; E: KEGG enrichment pathway map of differential metabolic pathway between the normal group and the model group; F: KEGG enrichment pathway map of differential metabolic pathway between the treated group and the model group. Control group: without treatment; Model group: treated with lipopolysaccharide; Sample group: treated with lipopolysaccharide and non-volatile ingredients of patchouli of 10 mg/L. Student’s t-test was used for statistical significance (P < 0.05); Data are presented as mean ± standard deviation (n = 6). Significant differences compared with control group were designated as aP < 0.001 and with model group as bP < 0.001.

In KEGG pathway enrichment analysis, P < 0.05 [－log (P) > 1.3] was used as the standard basis to distinguish the enrichment significance. The -log10 P, bubble color and bubble size were positively correlated with the number of differential metabolites in this pathway and the influence. The results showed that the influences involved: tyrosine metabolism, tryptophan metabolism, arginine and proline metabolism, aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis (Figure 4E, 4F).

4. DISCUSSION

Many scholars had studied the anti-inflammatory mechanism of volatile oil components of patchouli, and most of the mechanisms were mainly pro-inflammatory mediators, such as IL-6, interleukin-1β (IL-1β), TNF-α, NO, prostaglandin E2 (PGE2), etc.5 The contents of IL-6 and TNF-α could be decreased in different dosages of non-volatile ingredients of patchouli. Among them, the reduction degree of IL-6 content in samples was significantly lower than model group (P < 0.001). The results suggested that the non-volatile ingredients of patchouli could not only reduce the production of NO, but also inhibit the production of some markers of pro-inflammatory factors, thus having a good protective effect on the LPS induced inflammation model of RAW264.7 cells.

Arginine metabolism is a process in which nitric oxide synthase (NOS) breaks down arginine leading to the production of nitric oxide (NO) and citrulline. Nitric oxide synthase 2 as immune cells can be strongly induced by LPS and inflammatory cytokines, resulting in NO as a potent cell suppressor and cytotoxic molecule that can inhibit cell growth or kill cells in a non-specific manner.34 We speculated that the intervention treatment of the non-volatile ingredients of patchouli could inhibit the metabolism of arginine and down-regulated the expression level of arginine, thus inhibiting the production of NO and achieving the purpose of protecting cells from inflammatory damage. Aminoacyl-tRNA can be used as a macromolecular activated co-substrate, providing an amino acid for the formation of amide or ester bonds and participating in many biosynthesis.35 This process affected the expression differences of L-tyrosine, L-valine, arginine, L-phenylalanine, L-leucine and other substances between normal group and model group, and between the treated group and model group. Aldose reductase (AKR1B1, abbreviated as AR) regulates inflammation mediated by reactive oxygen species, reduces glucose to sorbitol and acts as a rate-limiting step in glucose metabolism of polyols.36 Activation of the polyol/sorbitol pathway led to cell damage and induces hypertrophy of the inflammatory response.37 By activating the toll-like receptors signaling pathway and the assembly of the NOD-like receptor thermal protein domain associated protein 3 inflammasome, the continuous accumulation of cholesterol in the immune cell membrane promoted the harmful inflammatory response.38 After multivariate statistical analysis of cell metabolomics, it was found that the differential metabolites of lipopolysaccharide-induced model group were significantly different from those of normal group and treated group. We concluded that the non-volatile ingredients of patchouli regulated the expression levels of arginine, L-leucine, cholesterol, fructose and sorbitol by down-regulating arginine metabolism, aminoacyl-tRNA biosynthesis, polyol/sorbitol pathway and so on, thus reducing inflammatory response and reducing cell damage.

In conclusion, in this study, a total of 54 compounds (including 36 flavonoids) were identified by HPLC-HESI-HRMS, and the non-volatile ingredients had a well protective effect on the LPS-induced inflammation model of RAW264.7 cells. The expression levels of arginine, L-leucine and other substances were regulated by down-regulating arginine metabolism, polyol/sorbitol pathways and so on, thus reducing inflammation and cell damage. The non-volatile ingredients of patchouli displayed promising anti-inflammatory function, which provided a reference for the study of comprehensive material basis of patchouli.

5. SUPPORTING INFORMATION

Supporting data to this article can be found online at http://journaltcm.cn.

Contributor Information

Feng WEI, Email: weifeng@nifdc.org.cn.

Shuangcheng MA, Email: masc@nifdc.org.cn.

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